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Notes for Electronic Edition.................................................................................................................. i

Quick-View Table of Contents.............................................................................................................. ii

PREFACE............................................................................................................................... vii

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION............................................................................................... xv

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION................................................................................................. xvii

LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO.......................................................................... lxiii

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THIRD EDITION................................................................ lxxxv

Table of Contents (Detailed)............................................................................................. lxxxvii

PART I:   INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... - 1 -

CHAPTER I:  NEW MATERIAL.................................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER II:  THE HISTORICAL METHOD.................................................................................. 31

CHAPTER III:   THE ΚΟΙΝΗ................................................................................................... 49

CHAPTER IV:   THE PLACE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE KOINH........................................... 76

PART II ACCIDENCE............................................................................................................. 142

CHAPTER V:   WORD–FORMATION........................................................................................ 143

CHAPTER VI:  ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONETICS...................................................................... 177

CHAPTER VII:   THE DECLENSIONS (ΚΛΙΣΕΙΣ)....................................................................... 246

CHAPTER VIII:   CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ( ῬΗΜΑ)......................................................... 303

PART III    SYNTAX................................................................................................................ 378

CHAPTER IX:   THE MEANING OF SYNTAX (ΣΥΝ ΤΑΞΙΣ)....................................................... 379

CHAPTER X:   THE SENTENCE................................................................................................ 390

CHAPTER XI:   THE CASES (ΠΤΩΣΕΙΣ).................................................................................. 446

CHAPTER XII:   ADVERBS (  ἘΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΑ)........................................................................ 544

CHAPTER XIII:   PREPOSITIONS (ΠΡΟΘΕΣΕΙΣ)..................................................................... 553

CHAPTER XIV:  ADJECTIVES ( ἘΠΙΘΕΤΑ)............................................................................. 650

CHAPTER XV:   PRONOUNS ( ἈΝΤΩΝΥΜΙΑΙ)...................................................................... 676

CHAPTER XVI:   THE ARTICLE (ΤΟ   ἌΡΘΡΟΝ).................................................................... 754

CHAPTER XVII:   VOICE (ΔΙΑΘΕΣΙΣ, Genus).......................................................................... 797

CHAPTER XVIII:   TENSE (ΧΡΟΝΟΣ).................................................................................... 821

CHAPTER XIX:  MODE (ἜΓΚΛΙΣΙΣ)...................................................................................... 911

CHAPTER XX:  VERBAL NOUNS (ὈΝΟΜΑΤΑ ΤΟΥ ῬΗΜΑΤΟΣ)...................................... 1050

CHAPTER XXI:   PARTICLES (ΑΙ  ΠΑΡΑΘΗΚΑΙ)................................................................... 1142

CHAPTER XXII:   FIGURES OF SPEECH (ΓΟΡΓΙΕΙΑ  ΣΧΗΜΑΤΑ).......................................... 1194

ADDITIONAL NOTES...................................................................................................................... 1209

INDEX OF SUBJECTS....................................................................................................................... 1223

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS............................................................................................................... 1249

INDEX OF QUOTATIONS................................................................................................................. 1291

ADDENDA TO THE SECOND EDITION............................................................................................... 1377

ADDENDA TO THE THIRD EDITION.................................................................................................. 1385

INDEX TO ADDENDA TO SECOND AND............................................................................................ 1433

ΤHIRD EDITIONS............................................................................................................................ 1433

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS IN THE ADDENDA..................................................................................... 1439

INDEX OF QUOTATIONS IN THE ADDENDA........................................................................... 1443

 

 

 

 

 

 

BY

A. T. ROBERTSON, M.A., D.D., LL.D., LITT.D.

Professor of Interpretation of the New Testament in the

Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

Louisville, Ky.

 

 

 

 

 

Digitized by Ted Hildebrandt at Gordon College, Wenham, MA

March 2006

 

Hebrew and Greek Transformed into Unicode

and additional formatting and corrections

(Greek: Cardo; Hebrew Ezra SIL)

by Louis Sorenson, Minneapolis, MN

October 2009

 

 

Ἔχομεν δὲ τὸν θησαυρὸν τοῦτον ἐν ὁστρακίνοις σκεύσειν,

ἵνα ἡ ὑπεβολὴ τῆς δυνάμεως ᾗ του θεοῦ καὶ μὴ ἐξ ἡμῶν.

— 2 COR. 4:7

 

 

 

 

 

THIRD EDITION

HODDER & STOUGHTON

LONDON : : : MCMXIX (1919)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY

GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY

GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY

GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Composition, Electrotyping, and Presswork:

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TO

 

THE MEMORY OF

 

 

John A. Broadus

 

SCHOLAR     TEACHER        PREACHER

 

 

 

Preface
Preface to 2^nd Edition

Preface to 3^rd Edition

Table of Contents

 

 

                                      PREFACE

 

          IT is with mingled feelings of gratitude and regret that I let

this book go to the public. I am grateful for God's sustaining

grace through so many years of intense work and am fully con-

scious of the inevitable imperfections that still remain. For a

dozen years this Grammar has been the chief task of my life. I

have given to it sedulously what time was mine outside of my

teaching. But it was twenty-six years ago that my great prede-

cessor in the chair of New Testament Interpretation proposed to

his young assistant that they together get out a revised edition

of Winer. The manifest demand for a new grammar of the New

Testament is voiced by Thayer, the translator of the American

edition of Winer's Grammar, in his article on "Language of the

New Testament" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible.

          I actually began the work and prepared the sheets for the first

hundred pages, but I soon became convinced that it was not

possible to revise Winer's Grammar as it ought to be done without

making a new grammar on a new plan. So much progress

had been made in comparative philology and historical grammar

since Winer wrote his great book that it seemed useless to go on

with it. Then Dr. Broadus said to me that he was out of it by

reason of his age, and that it was my task. He reluctantly gave

it up and pressed me to go on. From that day it was in my

thoughts and plans and I was gathering material for the great

undertaking. If Schmiedel had pushed through his work, I

might have stopped. By the time that Dr. James Hope Moulton

announced his new grammar, I was too deep into the enterprise

to draw back. And so I have held to the titanic task somehow

till the end has come. There were many discouragements and I

was often tempted to give it up at all costs. No one who has

not done similar work can understand the amount of research,

the mass of detail and the reflection required in a book of this

nature. The mere physical effort of writing was a joy of expres-

sion in comparison with the rest. The title of Cauer's brilliant

book, Grammatica Militans (now in the third edition), aptly

describes the spirit of the grammarian who to-day attacks the

                                            vii

 

viii   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

problems of the language of the New Testament in the light of

historical research.

          From one point of view a grammar of the Greek New Testa-

ment is an impossible task, if one has to be a specialist in the

whole Greek language, in Latin, in Sanskrit, in Hebrew and the

other Semitic tongues, in Church History, in the Talmud, in

English, in psychology, in exegesis.¹ I certainly lay no claim to

omniscience. I am a linguist by profession and by love also, but

I am not a specialist in the Semitic tongues, though I have a

working knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic, but not of Syriac

and Arabic.  The Coptic and the Sanskrit I can use. The Latin

and the Greek, the French and German and Anglo-Saxon com-

plete my modest linguistic equipment. I have, besides, a smat-

tering of Assyrian, Dutch, Gothic and Italian.

          I have explained how I inherited the task of this Grammar

from Broadus: He was a disciple of Gessner Harrison, of the

University of Virginia, who was the first scholar in America to

make use of Bopp's Vergleichende Grammatik. Broadus' views

of grammar were thus for long considered queer by the students

who came to him trained in the traditional grammars and unused

to the historical method; but he held to his position to the end.

          This Grammar aims to keep in touch at salient points with the

results of comparative philology and historical grammar as the

true linguistic science. In theory one should be allowed to as-

sume all this in a grammar of the Greek N. T., but in fact that

cannot be done unless the book is confined in use to a few tech-

nical scholars. I have tried not to inject too much of general

grammar into the work, but one hardly knows what is best when

the demands are so varied. So many men now get no Greek

except in the theological seminary that one has to interpret for

them the language of modern philology. I have simply sought

in a modest way to keep the Greek of the N. T. out in the middle

of the linguistic stream as far as it is proper to do so. In actual

class use some teachers will skip certain chapters.

          Alfred Gudemann,² of Munich, says of American classical

scholars: "Not a single contribution marking genuine progress,

no work on an extensive scale, opening up a new perspective or

breaking entirely new ground, nothing, in fact, of the slightest

scientific value can be placed to their credit." That is a serious

charge, to be sure, but then originality is a relative matter. The

 

            ¹ Cf. Dr. James Moffatt's remarks in The Expositor, Oct., 1910, p. 383 f.

            ² The Cl. Rev., .June, 1909, p. 116.

 

 

                                          PREFACE                                     ix

 

true scholar is only too glad to stand upon the shoulders of his

predecessors and give full credit at every turn. Who could make

any progress in human knowledge but for the ceaseless toil of

those¹ who have gone before? Prof. Paul Shorey,² of the Uni-

versity of Chicago, has a sharp answer to Prof. Gudemann. He 

speaks of "the need of rescuing scholarship itself from the

German yoke." He does not mean "German pedantry and

superfluous accuracy in insignificant research — but . . . in all

seriousness from German inaccuracy." He continues about "the

disease of German scholarship" that "insists on 'sweat-boxing'

the evidence and straining after 'vigorous and rigorous' demon-

stration of things that do not admit of proof." There probably

are German scholars guilty of this grammatical vice (are Amer-

ican and British scholars wholly free?). But I wish to record my

conviction that my own work, such as it is, would have been im-

possible but for the painstaking and scientific investigation of the

Germans at every turn. The republic of letters is cosmopolitan.

In common with all modern linguists I have leaned upon Brug-

mann and Delbrtick as masters in linguistic learning.

          I cannot here recite my indebtedness to all the scholars whose

books and writings have helped me. But, besides Broadus, I

must mention Gildersleeve as the American Hellenist whose wit

and wisdom have helped me over many a hard place. Gilder-

sleeve has spent much of his life in puncturing grammatical

bubbles blown by other grammarians. He exercises a sort of

grammatical censorship. "At least whole grammars have been

constructed about one emptiness."³ It is possible to be "grammar

mad," to use The Independent's phrase.⁴ It is easy to scout all

grammar and say: "Grammar to the Wolves."⁵ Browning sings

in A Grammarian's Funeral:

                   "He settled Hoti's business — let it be!

                                Properly based Oun

                    Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic De,

                         Dead from the waist down."

 

            ¹ F. H. Colson, in an article entitled "The Grammatical Chapters in Quin-

tilian," I, 4–8 (The Cl. Quarterly, Jan., 1914, p. 33), says: "The five chapters

which Quintilian devotes to ‘Grammatica’ are in many ways the most valuable

discussion of the subject which we possess," though he divides "grammatica"

into "grammar" and "literature," and (p. 37) "the whole of this chapter is

largely directed to meet the objection that grammar is ‘tenuis et jejuna.’"

            ² The Cl. Weekly, May 27, 1911, p. 229.

            ³ Gildersleeve, Am. Jour. of Philol., July, 1909, p. 229.       ⁴ 1911,         717.

            ⁵ Article by F. A. W. Henderson, Blackwood for May, 1906.

 

x        A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

Perhaps those who pity the grammarian do not know that he

finds joy in his task and is sustained by the conviction that his

work is necessary. Prof. C. F. Smith (The Classical Weekly,

1912, p. 150) tells of the joy of the professor of Greek at Bonn

when he received a copy of the first volume of Gildersleeve's

Syntax of Classical Greek. The professor brought it to the Semi-

nar and "clasped and hugged it as though it were a most precious

darling (Liebling)." Dr. A. M. Fairbairn¹ once said: "No man

can be a theologian who is not a philologian. He who is no

grammarian is no divine." Let Alexander McLaren serve as a

good illustration of that dictum. His matchless discourses are

the fruit of the most exact scholarship and spiritual enthusiasm.

I venture to quote another defence of the study of Greek which

will, I trust, yet come back to its true place in modern education.

Prof. G. A. Williams, of Kalamazoo College, says²: "Greek yet

remains the very best means we have for plowing up and wrink-

ling the human brain and developing its gray matter, and wrinkles

and gray matter are still the most valuable assets a student can

set down on the credit side of his ledger."

          Dr. J. H. Moulton has shown that it is possible to make gram-

mar interesting, as Gildersleeve had done before him. Moulton

protests³ against the notion that grammar is dull: "And yet there

is no subject which can be made more interesting than grammar,

a science which deals not with dead rocks or mindless vegetables,

but with the ever changing expression of human thought." I

wish to acknowledge here my very great indebtedness to Dr.

Moulton for his brilliant use of the Egyptian papyri in proof of

the fact that the New Testament was written in the vernacular

κοινή. Deissmann is the pioneer in this field and is still the

leader in it. It is hard to overestimate the debt of modern New

Testament scholarship to his work. Dr. D. S. Margoliouth, it is

true, is rather pessimistic as to the value of the papyri: "Not one

per cent. of those which are deciphered and edited with so much

care tell us anything worth knowing."⁴ Certainly that is too

 

            ¹ Address before the Baptist Theological College at Glasgow, reported in

The British Weekly, April 26, 1906.

            ² The Cl. Weekly, April 16, 1910.

            ³ London Quarterly Review, 1908, p. 214. Moulton and Deissmann also

disprove the pessimism of Hatch (Essays in Biblical Greek, p. 1): "The lan-

guage of the New Testament, on the other hand, has not yet attracted the

special attention of any considerable scholar. There is no good lexicon.

There is no good philological commentary. There is no adequate grammar."

            ⁴ The Expositor, Jan., 1912, p. 73.

 

                                        PREFACE                              xi

 

gloomy a statement. Apart from the linguistic value of the

papyri and the ostraca which has been demonstrated, these

letters and receipts have interest as human documents. They

give us real glimpses of the actual life of the common people in

the first Christian centuries, their joys and their sorrows, the

little things that go so far to make life what it is for us all. But

the student of the Greek New Testament finds a joy all his own

in seeing so many words in common use that were hitherto found

almost or quite alone in the New Testament or LXX. But the

grammar of the N. T. has also had a flood of light thrown on it

from the papyri, ostraca and inscriptions as a result of the work

of Deissmann; Mayser, Milligan, Moulton, Radermacher, Thumb,

Volker, Wilcken and others. I have gratefully availed myself of

the work of these scholars and have worked in this rich field for

other pertinent illustrations of the New Testament idiom. The

material is almost exhaustless and the temptation was constant

to use too much of it. I have not thought it best to use so much

of it in proportion as Radermacher has done, for the case is now

proven and what Moulton and Radermacher did does not have

to be repeated. As large as my book is, the space is precious for

the New Testament itself. But I have used the new material

freely. The book has grown so that in terror I often hold

back. It is a long step from Winer, three generations ago, to

the present time. We shall never go back again to that stand-

point. Winer was himself a great emancipator in the gram-

matical field. But the battles that he fought are now ancient

history.

          It is proper to state that the purpose of this Grammar is not

that of the author's Short Grammar which is now in use in various

modern languages of America and Europe. That book has its

own place. The present volume is designed for advanced stu-

dents in theological schools, for the use of teachers, for scholarly

pastors who wish a comprehensive grammar of the Greek New

Testament on the desk for constant use, for all who make a

thorough study of the New Testament or who are interested in

the study of language, and for libraries. If new editions come,

as I hope, I shall endeavour to make improvements and correc-

tions. Errata are sure to exist in a book of this nature.  Occa-

sionally (cf. Accusative with Infinitive) the same subject is

treated more than once for the purpose of fulness at special

points. Some repetition is necessary in teaching. Some needless

repetition can be eliminated later. I may explain also that the

 

xii   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

works used by me in the Bodleian Library and the British Mu-

seum had the citations copied twice with double opportunity for

errors of reference, but I have guarded that point to the best of

my ability. I have been careful to give credit in detail to the

many works consulted.

          But, after all is said, I am reluctant to let my book slip away

from my hands. There is so much yet to learn. I had hoped

that Mayser's Syntax der griechischen Papyri could have ap-

peared so that I could have used it, but he sorrowfully writes me

that illness has held him back. Neither Helbing nor Thackeray

has finished his Syntax of the LXX. The N. T. Vocabulary of

Moulton and Milligan, though announced, has not yet appeared.

Deissmann's Lexicon is still in the future. Thumb's revision of

Brugmann's Griechische Grammatik appeared after my book had

gone to the press.¹ I could use it only here and there. The same

thing is true of Debrunner's revision of Blass' Grammatik des

neatest. Griechisch. New light will continue to be turned on the

Greek Of the N. T.  Prof. J. Rendel Harris (The Expository Times,

Nov., 1913, p. 54 f.) points out, what had not been recently no-

ticed, that Prof. Masson, in his first edition of Winer in 1859,

p. vii, had said:  "The diction of the New Testament is the plain

and unaffected Hellenic of the Apostolic Age, as employed by

Greek-speaking Christians when discoursing on religious sub-

jects . . . Apart from the Hebraisms — the number of which

has, for the most part, been grossly exaggerated — the New

Testament may be considered as exhibiting the only genuine

fac-simile of the colloquial diction employed by unsophisticated

Grecian gentlemen of the first century, who spoke without

pedantry — as ἰδιῶται and not as σοφισταί." The papyri have

simply confirmed the insight of Masson in 1859 and of Lightfoot

in 1863 (Moulton, Prol., p. 242). One's mind lingers with fas-

cination over the words of the New Testament as they meet

him in unexpected contexts in the papyri, as when ἀρετή (cf.

1 Pet. 2 : 9) occurs in the sense of 'Thy Excellency,' ἔχω παρα-

σχεῖν τῇ σῇ ἀρετῇ, 0. P. 1131, 11 f. (v/A.D.), or when ὑπερῷον (Ac.

1:13) is used of a pigeon-house, τὸν ὑπερῷον τόπον τῆς ὑπαρχούσης

αὐτῷ ἐν Μουχινὺρ οἰκίας, 0. P. 1127, 5-7 (A.D. 183). But the book

must now go forth to do its part in the elucidation of the New

 

            ¹ Prof. E. H. Sturtevant (Cl. Weekly, Jan. 24, 1914, p. 103) criticises Thumb

because he retains in his revision of Brugmann's book the distinction between

accidence and syntax, and so is "not abreast of the best scholarship of the

day." But for the N.T. the distinction is certainly useful.

 

                                     PREFACE                                     xiii

 

Testament, the treasure of the ages.¹ I indulge the hope that

the toil has not been all in vain. Marcus Dods (Later Letters,

p. 248) says:, "I admire the grammarians who are content to

add one solid stone to the permanent temple of knowledge in-

stead of twittering round it like so many swallows and only

attracting attention to themselves." I make no complaint of the

labour of the long years, for I have had my reward in a more

intimate knowledge of the words of Jesus and of his reporters

and interpreters.  Τὰ ῥήματα ἃ ἐγὼ λελάληκα ὑμῖν πνεῦμά ἐστιν καὶ

ζωή ἐστιν (Jo. 6:63).

          I must record my grateful appreciation of the sympathy and

help received from many friends all over the world as I have

plodded on through the years. My colleagues in the Seminary

Faculty have placed me under many obligations in making it

possible for me to devote myself to my task and in rendering

substantial help. In particular Pres. E. Y. Mullins and Prof.

J. R. Sampey have been active in the endowment of the plates.

Prof. Sampey also kindly read the proof of the Aramaic and

Hebrew words. Prof. W. 0. Carver graciously read the proof of

the entire book and made many valuable suggestions. Dr. S.

Angus, of Edinburgh, read the manuscript in the first rough

draft and was exceedingly helpful in his comments and sympa-

thy. Prof. W. H  P. Hatch, of the General Episcopal Theological

Seminary, New York, read the manuscript for the publishers and

part of the proof and exhibited sympathetic insight that is greatly

appreciated. Prof. J. S. Riggs, of the Auburn Theological Semi-

nary, read the proof till his health gave way, and was gracious in

his enthusiasm for the enterprise. Prof. Walter Petersen, Ph.D.,

of Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kansas, read all the proof and

freely gave his linguistic attainments to the improvement of the

book. Last, but not least in this list, Mr. H. Scott, of Birken-

head, England, read the book in galley proof, and in the Accidence

verified all the references with minute care and loving interest,

and all through the book contributed freely from his wealth of

knowledge of detail concerning the Greek N. T. The references

in Syntax were verified by a dozen of my students whose labour

of love is greatly appreciated. Pres. J. W. Shepherd, of Rio

Janeiro, Brazil, and Prof. G. W. Taylor, of Pineville, La., had

verified the Scripture references in the MS., which were again

verified in proof. The Index of Quotations has been prepared by

 

          ¹ Brilliant use of the new knowledge is made by Dr. James Moffatt's New

Testament (A New Translation, 1913).

 

xiv    A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

Rev. W. H. Davis, of Richmond College, Va.; the Index of Greek

Words by Rev. S. L. Watson, Tutor of N. T. Greek for this ses-

sion in the Seminary. All this work has been done for me

freely and gladly. The mere recital of it humbles me very much.

Without this expert aid in so many directions the book could

not have been produced at all. I must add, however, that all

errors should be attributed to me. I have done the best that I

could with my almost impossible task. I have had to put on an

old man's glasses during the reading of the proof.

          I must add also my sincere appreciation of the kind words

of Prof. Edwin Mayser of Stuttgart, Oberlehrer H. Stocks of

Cottbus, Pres. D. G. Whittinghill of Rome, Prof. Caspar Rene

Gregory of Leipzig, the late Prof. E. Nestle of Maulbronn, Prof.

James Stalker of Aberdeen, Prof. Giovanni Luzzi of Florence,

Prof. J. G. Machen of Princeton, Profs. G. A. Johnston Ross and

Jas. E. Frame of Union Seminary, and many others who have

cheered me in my years of toil. For sheer joy in the thing Prof.

C. M. Cobern of Allegheny College, Penn., and Mr. Dan Craw-

ford, the author of Thinking Black, have read a large part of the

proof.

          I gladly record my gratitude to Mr. G. W. Norton, Misses

Lucie and Mattie Norton, Mr. R. A. Peter (who gave in memory

of his father and mother, Dr. and Mrs. Arthur Peter), Rev. R.

N. Lynch, Rev. R. J. Burdette, Mr. F. H. Goodridge, and others

who have generously contributed to the endowment of the plates

so that the book can be sold at a reasonable price. I am in-

debted to Mr. K. B. Grahn for kindly co-operation. I am deeply

grateful also to the Board of Trustees of the Seminary for making

provision for completing the payment for the plates.

          It is a pleasure to add that Mr. Doran has shown genuine

enthusiasm in the enterprise, and that Mr. Linsenbarth of the

University Press, Cambridge, has taken the utmost pains in the

final proofreading.

          I should say that the text of Westcott and Hort is followed

in all essentials. Use is made also of the Greek Testaments of

Nestle, Souter, and Von Soden whose untimely death is so re-

cent an event. In the chapter on Orthography and Phonetics

more constant use is made, for obvious reasons, of variations

in the manuscripts than in the rest of the book. It is now four

hundred years since Cardinal Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros

had printed the Greek New Testament under the auspices of

the University of Alcahi or Complutum, near Madrid, though it

 

                PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION            xv

 

was not circulated till 1522. Erasmus got his edition into circu-

lation in 1516. "The Complutensian edition of 1514 was the first

of more than a thousand editions of the New Testament in Greek"

(E. J. Goodspeed, The Biblical World, March, 1914, p. 166). It

thus comes to pass that the appearance of my Grammar marks

the four hundredth anniversary of the first printed Greek New

Testament, and the book takes its place in the long line of aids

to the study of the "Book of Humanity." The Freer Gospels

and the Karidethi Gospels show how much we have to expect

in the way of discovery of manuscripts of the New Testament.

I think with pleasure of the preacher or teacher who under

the inspiration of this Grammar may turn afresh to his Greek

New Testament and there find things new and old, the vital

message all electric with power for the new age. That will be

my joy so long as the book shall find use and service at the hands

of the ministers of Jesus Christ.

                                                                        A. T. ROBERTSON.

LOUISVILLE, KY., 1914.

 

 

 

           PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

 

          THE second edition has been called for so soon that I did not

have the opportunity for rest that I desired before preparing for

it. But I have gone steadily through the book with eager eyes.

The result is that some five hundred changes have been made in

the text here and there, all for the improvement of the book in

one way or another, besides the Addenda at the end of the book.

Most of the changes are small details, but they are all worth

making. The Addenda are as few as possible because of the great

size of the volume. I have been more than gratified at the kindly

reception accorded the book all over the world in spite of the

distraction of the dreadful war. Many scholars have offered

helpful criticisms for which I am deeply grateful. In particular

I wish to mention Prof. C. M. Cobern, Allegheny College, Mead-

ville, Penn.; Prof. D. F. Estes, Colgate University, Hamilton,

N. Y.; Prof. Basil L. Gildersleeve, The Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity, Baltimore; Prof. E. J. Goodspeed, the University of Chicago;

Prof. D. A. Hayes, Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill.;

Prof. James Moffatt, Mansfield College, Oxford, England; Prof.

 

xvi     A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

C. W. Peppler, Trinity College, Durham, N. C.; Prof. W. Peter-

sen, Bethany College, Lindsborg; Kansas; Mr. William Pitfield,

Manchester, England; Rev. Dr. Alfred Plummer, Bideford, Eng-

land; Mr. H. Scott, Birkenhead, England; Prof. James Stalker,

United Free Church College, Aberdeen, Scotland; Dr. Gross

Alexander, Nashville, Tenn. I hope that future editions may

make it possible to improve the book still further. Various minor

repetitions have been removed, though more still remain than is

necessary. But the book is at least made more intelligible there-

by. The numerous cross-references help also.

          In the Neutestamentliche Studien (1914) in honour of the seven-

tieth birthday of Dr. Georg Heinrici of the University of Leipzig

there is a paper by Heinrich Schlosser "Zur Geschichte der bib-

lischen Philologie." He tells the story of "the first grammar of

the New Testament Greek" (1655). It is by Georg Pasor and is

entitled Grammatica Graeca Sacra Novi Testamenti Domini nostri

Jesu Christi. His son, Matthias Pasor, Professor of Theology at

Groningen, found his father's manuscript and let it lie for eighteen

years because many held grammatical study to be puerile or

pedantic and the book would have few readers. Finally he pub-

lished it in 1655, since he held grammar to be "clavis scientiarum

omnisque soliclae eruditionis basis  ac fundamentum." He was

cheered by Melanchthon's "fine word": "Theologia vera est

grammatica quaedam divinae vocis." It is only 260 years since

1655.

          New books continue to come out that throw light on the lan-

guage of the New Testament. Part I (through a) of Moulton

and Milligan's Vocabulary of the Greek Testament Illustrated from

the Papyri and Other Non-literary Sources (1914) is now a rich

treasure in the hands of students. Sharp's Epictetus and the New

Testament (1914) is a very helpful monograph full of suggestions.

A note from Dr. Albert Thumb announces that he is at work on

a revision of his Hellenismus. So the good work goes on.

                                                                           A. T. ROBERTSON.

AUGUST, 1915.

 

                      PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION          xvii

          PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

 

          MY grammar has had to live and do its work in spite of the Great

War, but the time for the Third Edition has come. In a letter Dr.

Alfred Plummer says: "That so technical and expensive a volume

should be already in a third edition in the fifth year of the war is

indeed triumphant evidence of the value of the book. Scientific

grammar is appreciated more widely than one would antecedently

have ventured to expect." These few years have allowed time for

a thorough verification of the multitudinous references. This

enormous task has been done as a labor of love by Mr. H. Scott,

of Birkenhead, England, whose patient skill has placed all users

of the book under a debt of gratitude that can never be paid. He

had already put his invaluable services at my disposal, but now

his leisure permitted him to employ his really wonderful statistical

knowledge of the Greek New Testament for the benefit of stu-

dents. These extremely useful tables are found in the Addenda to

this Edition. I am sure that all New Testament students will

appreciate and profit greatly from these tables.

          A brilliant student of mine, Rev. W. H. Davis, has found some

striking illustrations in the papyri that appear in the Addenda, be-

sides a number from my own readings. Dr. Davis is at work on

the lexical aspects of the papyri and the inscriptions. If his studies

lead him on to prepare a New Testament lexicon, the world will

be the better for such an outcome.

          Mr. J. F. Springer, of New York City, has also made some

valuable contributions which appear in the Addenda. I am in-

debted also to Prof. Robert Law, of Knox College, Toronto, for

errata.

          I have watched with eagerness for criticisms of the book and

have done my best to turn them to the improvement of the gram-

mar. It is gratifying to know that ministers are using it in their

studies as one of the regular tools in the shop. In the classroom

only selected portions can be covered; but the preacher can use it

every day (as many do) in his reading and study of the Greek

New Testament. There are many ministers who read the Greek

New Testament through once a year, some of it every day, be-

sides the solid, critical study of a Gospel or Epistle with commen-

tary, lexicon and grammar. This is the work that pays one a

hundredfold in his preaching. My own reward for the long years

of devotion to this grammar is found in the satisfaction that

 

xviii   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

scholarly ministers are using the book for their own enrichment.

I have been gratified to learn of laymen who use the book regularly.

          Besides the correction of infelicities and errata that could be

found here and there and the Addenda at the end of the volume

I have inserted a detailed Table of Contents which will greatly

aid one in finding topics in the various chapters. The minute

subdivisions with page references will supplement the various

Indices to great advantage. The Index of Greek words, large as

it is, was still incomplete. It has been doubled in this edition by

Mr. Scott's assistance. The Additional Bibliography records the

most important recent contributions.

          Death has been busy with New Testament linguists. Dr. Gross

Alexander, of Nashville, has been claimed by death. Dr. George

Heinrici, of Leipzig, is dead. Dr. Albert Thumb, of Marburg, has

likewise passed on. Dr. H. B. Swete, of Cambridge, and Principal

James Denney, of Glasgow, have also joined the great majority.

These are irreparable losses, but there are others and even greater

ones. Dr. Caspar Rene Gregory, of Leipzig, though seventy years

old, volunteered for the army and was killed in battle in France.

With his death perished the hope of a new and revised edition of

Tischendorf's Novum Testamentum Graece for many years to come.

A younger man must now take hold of this problem and make

available for students the new textual knowledge.

          Dr. James Hope Moulton fell a victim in April, 1917, in the

Mediterranean Sea, to the German submarine. He was placed in

a boat, but after several days succumbed to the exposure and

cold. It was he who first applied in detail Deissmann's discovery

that the New Testament was written in the current κοινή as seen

in the Egyptian papyri. He had planned three volumes on the

New Testament grammar. Volume I (the Prolegomena) appeared

in 1906 (Third Ed., 1908). He had nearly finished Volume II

(Accidence), but had done nothing on Syntax, the most important

of all. His death is an unspeakable calamity, but his work

will live, for his Prolegomena preserves his interpretation of the

New Testament language. The Accidence will appear in due time

(is already in press). Prof. George Milligan, of Glasgow, has

completed the publication of the Vocabulary of the New Testa-

ment.

          The workers die, but the work goes on. It is pleasant to think

that Greek is renewing its grip upon the world. Professors Stuart

and Tewksbury are preparing a grammar and lexicon for Chinese

students of the New Testament. Japan will do likewise. Prof.

 

                       PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION                   xix

 

H. P. Houghton, of Waynesburg College, Pennsylvania, is con-

fident that Greek can be saved for the college and the university,

for "it is the basis of true culture" (The Classical Weekly, Dec. 11,

1916, p. 67). There is nothing like the Greek New Testament to

rejuvenate the world, which came out of the Dark Ages with the

Greek Testament in its hand. Erasmus wrote in the Preface to

his Greek Testament about his own thrill of delight: "These

holy pages will summon up the living image of His mind. They

will give you Christ Himself, talking, healing, dying, rising, the

whole Christ in a word; they will give Him to you in an intimacy

so close that He would be less visible to you if He stood before

your eyes." The Greek New Testament is the New Testament.

All else is translation. Jesus speaks to us out of every page of the

Greek. Many of his ipsissima verba are here preserved for us, for

our Lord often spoke in Greek. To get these words of Jesus it is

worth while to plow through any grammar and to keep on to the

end.

          At the age of sixteen John Brown, of Haddington, startled a

bookseller by asking for a copy of the Greek Testament. He was

barefooted and clad in ragged homespun clothes. He was a shep-

herd boy from the hills of Scotland. "What would you do with

that book?" a professor scornfully asked. "I'll try to read

it," the lad replied, and proceeded to read off a passage in the

Gospel of John. He went off in triumph with the coveted prize,

but the story spread that he was a wizard and had learned Greek

by the black art. He was actually arraigned for witchcraft, but

in 1746 the elders and deacons at Abernethy gave him a vote of

acquittal, though the minister would not sign it. His letter of

defence, Sir W. Robertson Nicoll says (The British Weekly, Oct. 3,

1918), "deserves to be reckoned among the memorable letters of

the world." John Brown became a divinity student and finally

professor of divinity. In the chapel at Mansfield College, Oxford,

Brown's figure ranks with those of Doddridge, Fry, Chalmers,

Vinet, Schleiermacher. He had taught himself Greek while herd-

ing his sheep, and he did it without a grammar. Surely young

John Brown of Haddington should forever put to shame those

theological students and busy pastors who neglect the Greek

Testament, though teacher, grammar, lexicon are at their dis-

posal.

          In Current Opinion for January, 1919, page 18, in an article

called "Europe's Ideas of Wilson the Man," one notes a pertinent

sentence: "President Wilson once told a member of the diplo-

 

xx    A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

matic corps in Washington, who repeated it later in Paris, that if

he were going to college all over again he would pay more atten-

tion to the Greek language, and literature, which American uni-

versities, on the whole, neglect." So the scholar-statesman feels.

So the preacher ought to feel.

                                                                       A. T. ROBERTSON.

 

                    The original table of contents were on pages xxi-lxii (pref. 21-62). That table has been moved because the 42 pages in the original table of contents was extended to 46 pages (on legal paper) by including the additional subpoints in the outline which were not included in the original ouline on pages xii-lxiii in the original book. Because the page numbering of the original outline does not match up to the generated MS Word page numbering, the pages xxi to lxii have been moved to after page lxxxvi, that is, after the last page of the Additional Bibliography for the Third Edition.

 

 

The updated table of contents starts on page lxxxvii.

 

 

LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO

 

          I HAD prepared an exhaustive analytic bibliography of the per-

tinent literature, but it was so long that, on the advice of several

friends, I have substituted an alphabetical list of the main works

mentioned in the book. The editions of Greek authors, the pa-

pyri and the inscriptions will be found in the Index of Quota-

tions. Look there for them. For full histories of grammatical

discussion one may turn to Sandys, A History of Classical Scholar-

ship, vols. I–III (1906-1908); Gudemann, Grundriss der Geschichte

der klassischen Philologie (2. Aufl., 1909); and Hubner, Grund-

riss zu Vorlesungen uber die griechische Syntax (1883). By no

means all the works consulted and referred to in the Grammar

are given below. Only the most important can be mentioned.

Hundreds that were consulted are not alluded to in the Gram-

mar. But the following list represents fairly well the works that

have contributed most to the making of my book. The chief

journals quoted are also mentioned here.

 

ABBOTT, E. A., Clue. A Guide through Greek to Hebrew (1904).

______, Johannine Grammar (1906).

_______, Johannine Vocabulary (1905).

Am. J. Ph., The American Journal of Philology (Baltimore).

ALEXANDER, W. J., Participial Periphrases in Attic Orators (Am.

          J. Ph., IV, pp. 291-309).

ALLEN, H. F., The Infinitive in Polybius compared with the In-

          finitive in Biblical Greek (1907).

Am. J. of Sem. L. and Lit., The American Journal of Semitic,

          Languages and Literature (Chicago).

Am. J. of Theol., The American Journal of Theology (Chicago).

ANGUS, S., Modern Methods in New Testament Philology (Har-

          vard Theol. Rev., Oct., 1909).

________. The Κοινή, the Language of the New Testament (Princ.

          Theol. Rev., Jan., 1910).

ANZ, H., Subsidia ad cognoscendum Graecorum sermonem vul-

          garem e Pentateuchi versione Alexandrina repetita (Diss.

          phil. Hal., XII, 1894, pp. 259-387).

 

                                                 lxiii

lxiv    A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

APOSTOLIDES, Essai sur l'Hellenisme Egyptien et ses rapports

          avec l'Hellenisme classique et l'Hellenisme moderne (1898).

________, Du grec alexandrin et des rapports avec le grec ancien et le

          grec moderne (1892).

Archiv fur Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete (Leipzig).

ARNAUD, Essai sur le caractere de la langue grec du N. T. (1899).

ARNOLD and CONWAY, The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and

          Latin (1885).

AUDOIN, E., De la declinaison dans les langues indo-europeennes

          (1898).

BABBITT, The Use of Μή in Questions (Harvard Studies in Class.

          Phil., 1901).

BACON, ROGER, Oxford Greek Grammar. Edited by Nolan and

          Hirsch (1902).

BAMBERG, Hauptregeln der griechischen Syntax (1890).

BARON, Le Pronom Relatif et la Conjonctive en Grec (1892).

BARRY, W., The Holy Latin Tongue (Dublin Rev., April, 1906);

          Our Latin Bible (ib., July).

BAUMLEIN, Untersuchungen uber die griech. Modi und die Par-

          tikeln κέν und ἄν (1846).

________, Untersuch. uber griech. Partikeln (1861).

BEKKER, Anecdota Graeca. 3 Bde. (1814-1821).

BE.NARD, Formes verbales en grec d'apres le texte d'Herodote

          (1890).

BERDOLT, Der Konsekutivsatz in der ahem griech. Lit. (1896).

BERNHARDY, G., Wissenschaftliche Syntax der griechischen

          Sprache (1829).

Bibl. Ec. Bibliotheque de l'ecole des hautes Etudes (Paris).

Bibl. Gr. V., Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire (Paris).

Bibl. S., The Bibliotheca Sacra (Oberlin).

Bibl. W., The Biblical World (Chicago).

BIRKE, De Particularum μή et οὐ Usu Polybiano Dionysiaeo Dio-

          doreo Straboniano (1897).

BIRKLEIN, F., Entwickelungsgeschichte des substantivierten In-

          finitivs (1882).

BLASS, F., Acta Apostolorum (1895).

_________, Die griech. Beredsamkeit von Alex. bis auf August. (1865).

________, Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa

          (1905).

________, Die rhythm. Kompos. d. Hebr.-Briefes (Theol. Stud. und

          Krit., 1902, pp. 420-461).

________, Evangelium sec. Lukam (1897).

       LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO                 lxv

 

BLASS, F., Grammatik d. neut. Griech. 2. Aufl. (1902).

________, Hermeneutik and Kritik (1892).

________, Philology of the Gospels (1898).

________, Pronunciation of Ancient Greek (translation by Purton in

          1890 of 3. Aufl. of Uber die Aussprache des Griech. 1888).

BLASS-DEBRUNNER, Grammatik d. neut. Griech. 4. Aufl. (1913).

BLASS-THACKERAY, Grammar of New Testament Greek. 2d ed.

          (1905).

BLOOMFIELD, Study of Greek Accent (A. J. Ph., 1883).

BOHMER, J., Das biblische "im Namen" (1898).

BOISACQ, Les dialectes doriens (1891).

_________, Dictionnaire etymol. de la langue grecque (1907 ff.).

BOLLING, The Participle in Hesiod (Cath. Univ. Bulletin, 1897).

BONHOFFER, A., Epiktet und das N. T. (1911).

BOPP, Vergleichende Grammatik (1857).

Br. W., The British Weekly (London).

BROADUS, JOHN A., Comm. on Matt. (1886).

BROCKELMANN, C., Grunclriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der

          semitischen Sprachen (1907).

BRUGMANN, K., Elements of Comparative Grammar of the Indo-

          Germanic Languages (translation by Wright, 1895).

________, Griechische Grammatik. 3. Aufl. (1900), the ed. quoted.

          Vierte vermehrte Aufl. of A. Thumb (1913).

_________, Grundriss der vergl. Gr. d. indog. Sprachen. 2. Aufl., Bde.

          I, II (1897-1913).

__________, Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der indogermanischen

          Sprachen (1904).

BUCK, C. D., Introduction to the Study of the Greek Dialects

          (1910).

BULTMANN, R., Der Stil der paulinischen Predigt und die kynisch-

          stoische Diatribe (1910).

BURESCH,  Γέγοναν und anderes Vulgdrgriechisch (Rhein. Mus.

          f. Phil., 1891, pp. 193-232).

BURKITT, F. C., Syriac Forms of N. T. Proper Name 1912).

BURROWS, R. M., Discoveries in Crete (1907).

BURTON, E. D., Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the N. T.

          Gk. 3d ed. (1909).

BURTON-ZWAAN, Syntax d. Wijzen etijden in h. Gr. N. T. (1906).

BUTCHER, S. H., Some Aspects of the Greek Genius (1893).

_________, Harvard Lectures on Greek Subjects (1904).

BUTTMANN, A., Grammatik d. neut. Sprachgebrauchs (1859).

BUTTMANN-THAYER, A Grammar of the N. T. Greek (1880).

 

lxvi    A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

BYWATER, J., The Erasinian Pronunciation of Greek and its Pre-

          cursors (1908).

Byz. Z., Byzantinische Zeitschrift (Leipzig).

Cambr. Ph. J., Cambridge Philological Journal.

Cath. Univ. Bull., Catholic University Bulletin.

CAUER, Grammatica Militans. 3d ed. (1912).

CHANDLER, H., A Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation.

          2d ed. (1881).

CHASE, F. H., The Credibility of the Acts (1902).

CHRIST, W., Geschichte der griech. Literatur bis auf die Zeit Jus-

          tinians. 4. Aufl. (1905). 5. Aufl. (1913).

CHURTON, The Influence of the Septuagint upon the Progress of

          Christianity (1861),

CLAFLIN, EDITH, Syntax of Boeotian Dialect Inscriptions (1905).

CLASSEN, J., De Grammaticae Graecae Primordiis (1829).

Cl. Ph., Classical Philology (Chicago).

Cl. Q., Classical Quarterly (London).

Cl. Rev., Classical Review (London).

Cl. W., Classical Weekly (New York).

CLYDE, J., Greek Syntax (1876).

COMPERNASS, De Sermone Gr. Volg. Pisidiae Phrygiaeque men-

          dionalis (1895).

CONYBEARE and STOCK Selections from the LXX. A Gram-

          matical Introduction (1905).

COURTOZ, Les Prefixes en Grec, en Latin et en Francais (1894).

CREMER, H., Biblico-Theological Lexicon of N. T. Greek (1892).

          Urwick's translation.

_________, Bibl.-theol. Worterbuch d. neut. Gracitat. 9. Aufl. (1902)

          Cremer-Kogel, neue Aufl. (1912).

CRONERT, W., Memoria Graeca Herculanensis (1903).

_________, Questiones Herculanenses (1898).

CRUM, W. E., Coptic Ostraca from the Collections of the Egypt

          Exploration Fund, the Cairo Museum and others (1902).

CURTIUS, G., Greek Etymology. 2 vols. (1886).

_________, Studien zur griech. and lat. Grammatik (1868-1878).

DALMAN, G., Grammatik des judisch-palastinischen Aramaisch

          (1894).

_________, Worte Jesu (1902).

_________, The Words of Jesus (1902). Translation by D. M. Kay.

DAWES, E. S., Pronunciation of the Gk. Aspirates (1894).

D. B., Dictionary of the Bible (Hastings, 1898-1904).

D. C. G., Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels (Hastings, 1906).

         LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO            lxvii

 

DEISSMANN, A., Bible Studies (1901). Tr. by A. Grieve; cf. Bibel-

          studien (1895) and Neue Bibelstudien (1897).

________, Biblische Gracitat etc. (Theol. Rundschau, Okt. 1912).

________, Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus (N.

          Jahrb. f. d. kl. Alt., 1903).

________, Die neut. Formel "in Christo" (1892).

________, Die Sprache d. griech. Bibel (Theol. Rundschau, 1906,

          No. 116).

________, Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprach-

          forschung (Intern. Woch., 30. Okt. 1909).

________, Hellenistisches Griechisch (Herzog-Hauck's Realencyc., VII,

          1899).

_________, Licht vom Osten (1908).

_________, Light from the Ancient East (1910). Tr. by Stachan.

_________, New Light on the N. T. (1907). Tr. by Strachan.

_________, Papyri (Encyc. Bibl., III, 1902).

_________, St. Paul in the Light of Social and Religious History (1912).

DELBRIYCE, B., Ablativ Localis Instrumentalis (1867).

_________, Grundriss der vergl. Gramm. d. indog. Spracheh. Syntax.

          Bde. III-V (1893, 1897, 1900).

_________, Introduction to the Study of Language (1882). Einleitung

          in das Sprachstudium. 4. Aufl. (1904). 5. Aufl. (1913).

_________, Syntaktische Forschungen. 5 Bde. (1871-1888).

DICK, Der schriftstellerische Plural bei Paulus (1900).1

DICKEY, S., New Points of View for the Study of the Greek of the

          N. T. (Princeton Theol. Rev., Oct., 1903).

DIEL, De enuntiatis finalibus apud graecarum rerum scriptores

          posterioris aetatis (1894).

DIETERICH, K., Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Sprache von

          der hellen. Zeit bis zum 10. Jahrh. n. Chr. (1898).

DONALDSON, J. W., The New Cratylus (1859).

DRAEGER, Hist. Syntax d. lat. Sprache (1878-1881).

          Dubl. Rev., The Dublin Review (Dublin).

DURR, Sprachliche Untersuchungen (1899).

DYROFF, A., Geschichte des Pronomen Reflexivum (1892, 1893).

EARLE, M. L., Classical Papers (1912).

EBELING, H., Griechisch-deutsches Worterbuch zum N. T. (1913).

ECKINGER, Die Orthographie lateinischer Wirter in griech. In-

          schriften (1893).

E. G. T., Expositor's Greek Testament.

Encyc. Bibl., Encyclopaedia Biblica.

Encyc. Brit., Encyclopaedia Britannica. 11th ed. (1910).

lxviii   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

ENGEL, E., Die Aussprache des Griechischen (1887).

ERNAULT, Du Parfait en Grec et en Latin (1886).

EVANS, A. J., Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phoenician Script

          (1895).

________, Further Researches (1898).

Exp., The Expositor (London).

Expos. T., The Expository Times (Edinburgh).

FARNELL, L. R., Greek Conditional and Relative Sentences (1892).

FARRAR, F. W., Greek Syntax (1876).

FICK-BECHTEL, Die griechischen Personennamen. 2.1Aufl. (1894).

FIELD, F., Otium NorVicense. Pars Tertia (1881).

FLENSBERG, Uber Ursprung und Bildung des Pron. αὐτός (1893).

FOWLER, The Negatives of the Indo-European Languages (1896).

FOY, K., Lautsystem der griech. Vulgarsprache (1879).

FRANKEL, Griechische Denominativa (1906).

FRENZEL, Die Entwickr des relativen Satzbaues im Griech. (1889).

________, Die Entwick. der Satze mit πρίν (1896).

FUCHS, A., Die Temporalsatze mit den Konjunktionen "bis" und

          "so lang als" (1902).

FUHRER, De Particulae ὡς cum Participiis et Praepos. punctae

          Usu Thucydideo (1889).

GALLOWAY, W. F., On the Use of Μή with the Participle in Clas-

          sical Greek (1897). 

GEDDES, A Compendious Greek Grammar (1888).

GELDART, The Modern Greek Language in Its Relation to An-

          cient Greek (1870).

GERSDORF, C. G., Beitrage zur Sprachcharakteristik der Schrift-

          steller des N. T. (1816).

GESENIUS-KATITZSCH, Hebrew Grammar.

GEYER, M., Observationes epigraphicae de praepositionum graec.

          forma et usu (1880).

GILDERSLEEVE, B. L., Editions of Pindar and Justin Martyr.

________, Latin Grammar. Many editions since 1867.

________, Notes on Stahl's Syntax of the Greek Verb (1910).

________, Numerous articles in the American Journal of Philology.

GILDERSLEEVE and MILLER, Syntax of Classical Greek. Part I

          (1900), Part II (1911).

Gildersleeve Studies. Volume in honour of Prof. Gildersleeve of

          Johns Hopkins (1902).

GILES, P., A Short Manual of Comparative Philology. 2d ed.

          (1901).

________, The Greek Language (Encyc. Britannica, 1910).

          LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO         lxix

 

GILES-HERTEL, Vergl. Grammatik (1896). Tr. of Giles' Manual.

GOETZELER, L., De Polybii elocutione (1887).

________, Einfluss d. Dion. Hal. auf d. Sprachgebrauch 1891).

GOODSPEED, E. J., Did Alexandria Influence the Nautical Lan-

          guage of St. Luke? (The Expositor, VIII, 1903, pp. 130-141).

GOODWIN, W. W., Greek Grammar. Various editions.

________, Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb. Rev.

          Ed. (1890).

GRANIT, De Inf. et Part. in Inscr. Dial. Graec. Questiones Synt.

          (1892).

GREEN, Μή for οὐ before Lucian (Studies in Honour of B. Gil-

          dersleeve, 1902).

GREEN, B., Notes on Greek and Latin Syntax (1897).

GREEN, S. G., Handbook to the Grammar of the Greek N. T.

          Rev. Ed. (1904).

GREGORY, C. R., Canon and Text of the N. T. (1907).

________, Die griech. Handschriften d. N. T. (1908).

________, Nov. Test. Graece, ed. Tischendorf. Bd. III, Prolegomena

          (1884-1894).

________, Textkritik d. N. T. 3 Bde. (1900-1909).

GRIMM-THAYER, A Greek-English Lexicon of the N. T. (1887).

GRUNEWALD, L., Der freie formeihafte Inf. d. Limitation im

          Griech. (1888).

GUDEMANN, A., Grundriss der -Geschichte d. Klass: Philologie.

          2. Aufl. (1909).

GUILLEMARD, W. H., Hebraisms in the Greek Testament (1879).

GUNTHER, R., Die Prapos. in d. griech. Dialektinschriften (Indog.

          Forsch., 1906).

HADLEY and ALLEN, Greek Grammar (1895).

HADLEY, JAMES, Essays Philological and Critical (1873).

__________, Language of the N. T. (vol. II, Hackett and Abbott's ed. of

          Smith's B. D., 1898).

HAHNE, Zur sprachlichen Asthetik d. Griechischen (1896).

HALE, W. G., The Anticipatory Subj. in Gk. and Lat. (Stud. Cl.

          Phil., 1895).

_________, The Cum Constructions (Studies in Class. 1887).

_________, The Origin of Subj. and Opt. Conditions in Gk. and Lat.

          (Harvard Studies in Class. Philol., 1901).

HAMILTON, The Negative Compounds in Greek (1899).

HAMMER, De τέ Particulae Usu Herodoteo Thucydideo Xeno-

          phonteo (1904).

HAMMERSCHMIDT, Uber die Grundb. von Konjunktiv and Optativ.

lxx   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

HARNACK, A., Luke the Physician (1907).

________, The Acts of the Apostles (1909).

HARRIS, J. RENDEL, Side-Lights on N. T. Research (1908).

HARRISON, GESSNER, A Treatise on the Philology of Greek Prepo-

          sitions (1858).

HARRISON, Miss JANE, Prol. to the Study of Greek Religion (1903).

HARSING, C., De Optativi in Chartis Aegyptiis Usu. Diss. Bonn

          (1910).

HARTEL, Abriss der Gr. d. horn. und herod. Dial. (1888).

HARTUNG, J. A., Lehre von den Partikeln der griech. Spr., I, II

          (1832-1833).

HATCH, E., Essays in Bibl. Greek (1892).

HATCH, W. H. P., Some Illustrations of N. T. Usage from Greek

          Inscriptions of Asia Minor (Journ. of Bibl. Lit., 1908, pp.

          134-146).

HATZIDAKIS, G. N., Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik

          (1892).

HAVERS, W., Untersuch. zur Kasussyntax der indog. Sprachen

          (1911).

HAWKINS, J. C., Horae Synopticae. 2d ed. (1909).

HEINE, G., Synonymik des neutest. Griechisch (1898).

HEINRICI, K. F., Der literarische Charakter der neutest. Schriften

          (1908).

HEIMULLER, W., Im Narnen Jesu (1902).

HELBING, R., Die Prapos. bei Herodot und andern Historikern

          (1904).

_________, Grammatik der Septuaginta. Laut- und Wortlehre (1907).

_________, Uber den Gebrauch des echten und soziativen Dativs bei

          Herodot.

HENRY, Precis de grammaire du grec et du latin. 5th ed. (1894).

          Elliott's tr. of 11st ed. (1890).

Hermes, Zeitschrift fur klassische Philologie.

HESSELING, D. C., De Koine en de oude dialekten van Griechen-

          land (1906).

HICKS, E. L., St. Paul and Hellenism (Studia Biblica et Eccl.,

          1896).

_________, Traces of Greek Philosophy and Roman Law in the N. T.

          (1896).

__________, Use of Political Terms in the N. T. (Class. Rev., March

          and April, 1887).

HICKS, E. L., and HILL, G. F., A Manual of Greek Historical In-

          scriptions (1901).

LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO   lxxi

 

HIRT, H., Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre (1902).

          2. Aufl. (1912).

HOBART, W. K., The Medical Language of Luke (1882).

HOFFMANN, F., Neutestamentliche Bibelstudien. '5 Bde. (1903).

          Uber die Entwick. des Begriffs der Grammatik bei den

          Alten (1891).

HOFFMANN, O., Das Prdsens der indog. Grundsprache (1889).

________, Die griechischen Dialekte, I–III (1891-1898).

________, Die Makedonen, ihre Sprache und ihr Volkstum (1906).

________, Geschichte d. griech. Sprache (1911).

HOGARTH, D. G., Philip and Alexander (1897).

HOLL, K., Das Fortleben der Volkssprachen in nachchristlicher

          Zeit (Hermes, 1908, 43, pp. 243 ff.).

HOOLE, C. H., The Classical Element in the N. T. (1888).

HORT, F. J. A., Notes on Orthography (pp. 141-173, vol. II of the

          N. T. in the Original Greek, 1882).

HOWES, The Use of Μή with the Participle (Harv. St. in Cl. Ph.,

          1901).

HATCH and REDPATH, Concordance to the LXX (1897).

HUBNER, E., Grundriss zu Vorlesungen uber die griech. Syntax

          (1883).

HUBSCHMANN, Zur Kasuslehre (1875).

HUMPHREYS, M. W., The Problems of Greek (Congress of Arts

          and Sciences, 1904, vol. III, pp. 171 ff.).

Indog. Forsch., Indogermanische Forschungen (Stratiburg).

IMMER, J., Hermeneutics of the N. T. Tr. by A. H. Newman

          (1877).

Intern. Woch., Internationale Wochenschrift.

JACOBSTHAL, H. K., Der Gebrauch der Tempora und Modi in

          den kretischen Dialektinschriften (1906).

JACQUIER, E., Histoire des Livres du N. T. Tomes I–IV. Ch. ii,

          Tome I, Langue du N. T.

J. kl. Ph., Jahrbuch fur klass. Philologie (Leipzig).

JANNARIS, A. N., A Historical Greek Grammar (1897).

________, On the True Meaning of the Κοινή (Class. Rev., 1903, pp.

          93 ff.).

JEBB, R. C., Attic Orators. 2d ed. (1893).

_________,  Introduction to the Iliad and the Odyssey (1892).

_________, On the Relation of Classical to Modern Greek (Appendix

          to Vincent and Dickson's Handbook to Mod. Gk., 1887).

JELF, W. E., A Grammar of the Greek Language. 2 vols.

          (1866).

lxxii  A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

JOHANNESSOHN, M., Der Gebrauch der Kasus uncl der Praposi-

          tionen in der Septuaginta. Teil I (1910).

JOLLY, Ein Kapitel d. vergl. Syntax. Der Konjunktiv und Op-

          tativ.

________, Geschichte des lnfinitivs im Indog. (1873).

JOY, On the Syntax of Some Prepositions in the Greek Dialects

          (1905).

J. of Phil., The Journal of Philology (London).

J. B. L., The Journal of Biblical Literature (Boston).

J. H. S., The Journal Of Hellenic Studies (London).

J. T. S., The Journal of Theological Studies (London).

JULICHER, A., Introduction to the N. T. Tr. by Ward (1904).

KAERST, J., Geschichte des hellenistischen Zeitalters (1901).

KAIBEL, Stil und Text der  Ἀθηναίων Πολιτεία.

KALKER, F., Questioned de elocutione Polybiana (1880).

KALLENBERG, Stud. uber den griech. Artikel (1891).

KAUTZSCH, E., Grammatik d. bibl. Aram. (1884).

KENNEDY, H. A. A., Recent Research in the Language of the

          N. T. (The Expos. T., xii, 1901).

_________, Sources of N. T. Greek (1895).

_________, St Paul and the Mystery Religions (1913).

KENYON, F. G., Evidence of the Papyri for Textual Criticism of

          the N. T. (1905).

_________, Handbook to the Textual Crit. of the N. T. 2d ed. (1912).

_________, Palaeography of the Greek Papyri (1899).         

_________, Papyri (Hastings' D. B., extra vol., 1904).

KING and COOKSON, The Principles of Sound and Inflexion as

          Illustrated in the Greek and Latin Languages (1888).

KRAUSS, S., Griechische and lateinische Lehnworter in Talmud,

          Midrasch und Targum. I (1898), II (1899).

KREBS, F., Die Prapositionen bei Polybius (1882. Schanz' Bei-

          trage).

_________, Die Prapositionsadrerbien in der spateren hist. Gracitat.

          Tl. I (1889).

_________, Zur Rektion der Kasus in der spateren hist. Gracit. (1887–

          1890).

KRENKEL, Josephus und Lukas (1894).

KRETSCHMER, P., Die Einl. in die Geschichte der griech. Sprache

          (1906).

_________, Die Entstehung der Κοινή (Sitz. ber. d. Wien. Akad., 1900).

_________, Die griech. Vaseninschriften ihrer Sprache nach untersucht

          (1894).

        LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO      lxxiii

 

KRUMBACHER, K., Beitrage zu einer Geschichte der griech.

          Sprache (Kuhn's Zeitschr., 1885, pp. 481-545).

_________, Das Problem d. neugriech. Schriftsprache (1902).

_________, Das Programm des neuen Thesaurus d. griech. Spr. (1909).

_________, Die griech. Lit. des Mittelalters (Kultur d. Gegenwart,

          T1. I, Abt. viii, 1905).

KUHNER-BLASS, Ausfuhrliche Grammatik d.griech. Sprache.

          3. Aufl. of Kuhner. Teil I, Bde. I, II (1890, 1892).

KUHNER-GERTH, Ausf. Gramm. d. griech. Spr. 3.  Aufl. of Kuhner.

          TI. II, Bde. I, II (1898, 1904).

KUHRING, G., De praepositionum Graecarum in chartis Aegyp-

          tiacis (1906).

KUPFF, Der Gebr. d. Opt. bei Diod. Sic. (1903).

K. Z., Kuhn's Zeitschrift fur vergl. Sprachforschung (Berlin).

LAFOSCADE, Infl. du Lat. sur le Grec (Biol. de l'Ecole des hautes

          Et., 1892, pp. 83-158).

LAGARDE, P. DE, Septuagintastudien. I (1891).

LAKE, K., The Text of the N. T. 4th ed. (1908).

LAMBERT, Etude sur le dialecte eolien (1903).

LANG, A., Homer and His Age (1906).

LAQUEUR, Questiones epigraphicae et papyrologicae selectae

          (1904).

LA ROCHE, Beitrage zur griech. Gr. (1883).

________, Das Augment des griech. Verbums (1882).

LAUGHLIN, T. C., The Solecisms of the Apocalypse (1902).

LAUTENSACH, Verbalflexion der attischen Inschriften (1887).

LEFEVRE, Race and Language (1909).

LELL, Der Absolut-Akk. im Griech. bis zu Aristoteles (1892).

LEUTNER, W. G., The Article in Theocritus (1907).

LIDDELL and SCOTT, Greek-English Lexicon. 8th, ed. (1882).

LIETZMANN, H., Die klass. Philologic und das N. T. (N. Jahrb.

          f. kl. Alt., 1908, Bd. 21).

_________, Griechische Papyri ausgewahlt und erklart. 2. Aufl. (1910).

LIGHTFOOT, TRENCH, ELLICOTT, The Revision of the N. T. (1873).

LIPSIUS, K. H. A., Grammatische Untersuchungdn uber die bibl.

          Gracitat (1863).

LIVINGSTON, The Greek Genius and Its Meaning to Us (1912).

LOBECK, C. A., Phrynichi ecloga nominum et verborum Atticorum

          (1820).

LOCK, W., The Bible and Christian Life (1905).

LOISY, A., Histoire critique du texte et des versions de la Bible

          (1892).

lxxiv   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT'

 

LOTTICH, B., De sermone vulgari Atticorum (1881).

LUTZ, Die Kasus-Adverbien bei att. Rednern (1891).

MADVIG, Bemerk. uber einige Punkte des Griech. (1848).

__________, Syntax of the Greek Language (1880).

MAHAFFY, J. P., A Survey of Greek Civilization (1897).

_________, Greek Life and Thought (1896).

_________, Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Empire (1905).

_________, The Greek World under Roman Sway (1890).

_________, What Have the Greeks Done for Civilization? (1909).

MARGOLIOUTH, D. S., Language of the O. T. (Hastings' D. B.).

MARGOLIS, The Particle ἤ in O. T. Gk. (Am. J. of Sem. Lang. and

          Lit., July, 1909).

MARSHALL, J. T., The Aramaic Gospel (The Expositor, ser. IV,

          ii, iii, iv, vi, viii; The Expos. Times, iv, 260).

MARTI, K., Kurzgef. Gr. d. bibl. aram. Spr. (1911).

MAYSER, E., Grammatik der griech. Papyri aus der Ptolemaerzeit.

          Laut- and Wortlehre (1906).

MEILLET, A., Introduction a l'etude comparative des langues indo-

          europeennes (1908). 4th ed. (1915).

_________, L'aoriste en lat. (Revue de Phil., 1897, p. 81 f.).

_________, Notes d'Etymologie Grecque (1896).

MEISTER, R., Beitrage zur Lautlehre d. LXX (1909).

__________, Der syntakt. Gebrauch d. Genitivs in den kret. Dialekt-

          inschriften (Indog. Forsch., XVIII, pp. 133-204).

__________, Die griech. Dialekte. 2 Bde. (1882-1889).

__________, Prol. zu einer Gramm. d. LXX (1907).

MEISTERHANS-SCHWYZER, Gramm. d. attischen Inschriften. 3.

          Aufl. (1900) of Meisterhans.

MERRIAM, A. C., Temporal Coincidence of the Aor. Part. with the

          Principal Verb (Proc. Am. Phil. Assoc., 1877).

MEYER, A., Jesu Muttersprache (1896).

MEYER, G., Griech. Grammatik. 3. Aufl. (1896).

MEYER, L., Griech. Aoriste (1879).

__________, Vergl. Gr. d. griech. and lat. Spr. 2 Bde. 2. Aufl. (1882-

          1884).

MEYER-LUBKE, Gramm. d. roman. Spr. 3 Bde. (1890-1899).

MIDDLETON, Analogy in Syntax (1892).

__________, The Doctrine of the Greek Article (1855).

MILDEN, The Limitations of the Predicate Position in Greek.

MILLER, C. W. E., The Limitation of the Imperative in the Attic

          Orators (Am. J. ph., 1892, pp. 399-436).

MILLIGAN, G., Selections from the Greek Papyri (1910).

 

               LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERED TO            lxxv

 

MILLIGAN, G., The Greek Papyri with Special Reference to their

          Value for N. T. Study (1912).

________, The N. T. Documents (1913).

MITSOTAKIS, Praktische Gr. d. neugriech. Schrift- und Umgangs-

          sprache (1891).

MITTEIs und WILCKEN, Grundztige und Chrestoinathie der Papy-

          ruskunde. 2 Bde. (1912).

MOFFATT, J., The New Testament. A New Translation (1913).

MOMMSEN, T., Beitrage zur Lehre der griech. Prapositionen

          (1886-1895).

________, Die Prap. σύν and μετά bei den nachhom. Epikern (1879).

MONRO, D. B., Homeric Grammar (1882). 2d el. (1891). First

          ed. used.

MOULTON, J. H., A Grammar of N. T. Greek. Vol. I, Prolego-

          mena (1906). 3d ed. (1908).

_________, Characteristics of N. T. Greek (The Expositor, 1904).

_________, Einleitung in die Sprache des N. T. (1911).

_________, Grammatical Notes from the Papyri (The Expositor, 1901,

          pp. 271-282; 1903, pp. 104-121, 423-439. The Classical Re-

          view, 1901, pp. 31-37, 434-441; 1904, pp. 106-112, 151-155).

_________, Introduction to N. T. Greek (1895). 2d ed: (1904).

_________, Language of Christ (Hastings' One-vol. 1 B., 1909).

_________, N. T. Greek in the Light of Modern Discovery (Cambr.

          Bibl. Essays, 1909, pp. 461-505).

__________, The Science of Language (1903).

MOULTON, W. F., and GEDEN, A. S., A Concordance to the Greek

          Testament (1897).

MOULTON and MILLIGAN, Lexical Notes from the Papyri (The

          Expos., 1908--).

__________, The Vocabulary of the N. T. Illustrated from the Papyri

          and other Non-Literary Sources. Part I (1914), II, III.

MOZLEY, F. W., Notes on the Bibl. Use of the Present and Aorist

          Imperative (Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1903, iv, pp. 279-282).

MULLACH, F., Grammatik d. griech. Vulgarsprache (1856).

MULLER, H. C., Hist. Gramm. d. hellen. Sprache (1891).

MULLER, I., Handbuch d. klass. Altertumswissenshaft (1885-).

MULLER, MAX, Three Lectures on the Science of Language (1891).

MURRAY, G., A History of Ancient Greek Lit. (1897).

MUTZBAUER, C., Die Grundbedeutung des Konjunktivs und Op-

          tativs und ihre Entwick. im Griech. (1908).

_________, Die Grundlagen der griech. Tempuslehre kind des horn.

          Tempusgebrauchs. I (1893), II (1909).

lxxvi  A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

NACHMANSON, E., Beitrage zur Kenntnis der altgriech. Volks-

          sprache (1910).

________, Epigraphisch-grammatische Bemerkungen (Eranos 11,

          1912).

________, Laute und Formen der magnetischen Inschriften (1903).

NAGELI, T., Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus. α — ε (1905).

NAVARRE, Etude sur les particules grecques (R. E. A., vii, pp.

          116-130).

NESTLE, E., Einfuhrung in das griech. N. T. 2. Aufl. (1899).

          Introd. to the Textual Crit. of the N. T. (Tr. 1901).

________, Novum Testamentum Graece. 8th ed. (1910).

________, Septuagint (Hastings' D. B., 1902).

________, Septuaginta-Studien. I-V (1886-1907).

________, Zum neutest. Griechisch (Z. N. W., vii, 1906).

NEUBAUER, Studia Biblica (1885).

N. k. Z., Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift (Leipzig).

N. Jahrb. kl. Alt., Neue Jahrbucher fur das klass. Altertum

          (Leipzig).

NILSSON, Kausalsatze im Griech. bis Aristoteles. I., Die Poesie.

NORDEN, E., Die antike Kunstprosa. 2. Aufl. (1909).

OERTEL, H., Lectures on the Study of Language (1902).

OGDEN, De infinitivi finalis vel consecutivi constr. apud priscos

          poetas Graecos (1913).

PALEY, Greek Particles and their Combinations (1881).

PALLIS, A., A Few Notes on the Gospel (1903).

_________,   Ἡ Νέα Διαθήκη (1902). The N. T. (Gospels) in modern

          Greek vernacular.

PATER, W., The Renaissance (1904).

PAUL, H., Principles of the History of Language (1888). Tr.

PETERSEN, W., Greek Diminutives in —ιον (1910).

PFEIFAUF, Der Artikel vor Personen- und Gotternamen bei Thuk.

          und Herod. (1908).

PFISTER, Die parataktische Darstellungsform in der volkstum-

          lichen Erzahlung (Woch. f. klass. Phil., 1911, pp. 809-813).

Ph. W., Philologische Wochenschrift.

Ph. Z., Philologus: Zeitschrift f. d. kl. Alt. (Gottingen).

POSTGATE, J. P., Contrasts of Οὐ and Μή (Cambr. Phil. Jour., 1886).

PRELLWITZ, Etym. WOrterbuch d. griech. Sprache (1893). 2d ed.

          (1905).

PREUSCHEN, E., Vollstandiges griechisch-deutsches HandwOrter-

          buch zu den Schriften d. N. T. und d. iibrigen urchristlichen

          Literatur (1908).

    LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO           lxxvii

 

Pr. Rev., The Princeton Review (Princeton).

PSICHARI, J., Essai sur le grec de la Septante (Rev. des etudes

          juives, April, 1908).

_______, Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque (1886-1889).

RADERMACHER, L., Neut. Grammatik. Das Griechisch des N. T.

          im Zusammenhang mit der Volkssprache (1911).

RAMSAY, W. M., Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia. 2 vols. (1895,

          1897).

_________, St. Paul the Traveller (1896).

R. E., Herzog-Hauck's Realencyclopalie.

R. E. Gr., Revue des etudes grecques (Paris).

REFFEL, Uber den Sprachgebr. D. Agathias.

REIK, Der Opt. bei Polyb. and Philo (1907).

REINACH, S., Pap. grecs et demotiques (1905).

REINHOLD, H., De graecitate Patrum (1898).

REISART, Zur Attraktion der Relativsiitze in der griech. Prosa.

REITZENSTEIN, Geschichte d. griech. Etym. (1897).

RENAUD, The Distributed Emphasis of the Pers. Pronoun (1884).

Rev. and Exp., The Review and Expositor (Louisville).

Rev. d. Ling., Revue de Linguistique de la Phil. comparee (Paris).

Rev. d. Ph., Revue de Philologie (Paris).

Rev. of Th. & Ph., Review of' Theology and Philosophy (Edin-

          burgh).

Rh. M., Rheinisches Museum (Bonn).

RIDGEWAY, W., The Early Age of Greece. Vol. I (1901).

RIEMANN and GOELZER, Grammaire Comparee du Grec et du

          Latin. I (1897), II (1901).

RIES, Was ist Syntax? (1894).

ROBERTS, A Short Proof that Greek was the Language of Jesus

          (1893).

ROBERTS-GARDNER, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy (1883).

ROBERTSON, A. T. A Short Grammar of the Greek N. T. (1908).

          3d ed. (1912).

________, Syllabus on N. T. Greek Syntax (1900).

ROBERTSON-BONACCORSI, Breve grammatica del Nuovo Testa-

          mento greco (1910).

ROBERTSON-GROSHEIDE, Beknopte Grammatica op het Grieksche

          Nieuwe Testament (1912).

ROBERTSON-MONTET, Grammaire du grec du N. T. (1911).

ROBERTSON-STOCKS, Kurzgefasste Grammatik des neut. Griechisch

          (1911).

ROSE, A., Christian Greece and Living Greek (1898).

lxxviii   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

ROSSBERG, C., De prapos. graecarum in chartis aegyptiis ptolem,

          aetatis usu (1909).

ROUFFIAC, J., Recherches sur les caracteres du grec dans le N. T.

          d'apres les inscriptions de Priene (1911).

RUTHERFORD, W. G., A Chapter in the History of Annotation

          (1905).

_________, The New Phrynichus (1881).

RUGER, Prap. bei Joh. Antiochenus (1896).

_________, Prap. bei Pausanias (1889).

SANDAY, W., The Criticism of the Fourth Gospel (1905).

SANDYS, J. E., A History of Classical Scholarship. I-III (1906-

          1908).

SAYCE, A. H., Introduction to the Science of Language (1880).

_________, Language (Encyc. Brit., 11th ed., 1910).

_________, Principles of Comparative Philology (1875).

SCHAEFER, Das Partizip des Aor. bei d. Tragikern (1894).

SCHAFF, P., A Companion to the Greek N. T. and Engl. Vers.

          3d ed. (1889).

SCHANZ, M., Beitrage zur histor. Syntax d. griech. Sprache

          (1882—).

SCHILLING, D., Comm. exeg.-philol. in Hebraism. d. N. T. (1886).

SCHIRLITZ, S. C., Anleitung zur Kenntnis d. neut. Grundsprache

          (1863).

SCHLACHTER, Statist. Unters. uber den Gebr. der Temp. und

          Modi bei einzelnen griech. Schriftst. (1908).

SCHLAGETER, J., Der Wortschatz d. ausserhalb Attikas gefunde-

          nen Inschriften (1912).

__________, Zur Laut- und Formenlehre d. auss. Att. gef. attischen Inschr.

          (1908).

SCHLEICHER, A., Compendium d. vergl. Gr. d. indog. Sprachen.

          4. Aufl. (1876).

SCHMID, J., Uber den gnomischen Aor. des Griech. (1894).

SCHMID, W., Der Atticismus in semen Hauptvertretern. 4 Bde.

          (1887-1897).

SCHMIDT, De Articulo in nominibus propiis apud Att. scriptores

          (1890).

SCHMIDT, W., De Flavii Josephi elocutione (1894).

SCHMITT, P., Uber den Ursprung des Substantivsatzes mit Rela-

          tivpartikeln im Griech. (1889).

SCHOEMANN, Die Lehre von den Redet. nach den Alten (1862).

SCHROEDER, Uber die form. Untersch. d. Redet. im Griech. und

          Lat. (1874).

        LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO          lxxix

 

SCHUERER, A., A History of the Jew. P. in the Time of Jesus

          Christ. 5 vols. (1898). Tr. by Macpherson.

SCHULZE, Der schriftsteller. Charakter und Wert des Petrus, Judas 

          und Jakobus (1802).

SCHULZE, W., Graeca, Latina (1901).

SCHWAB, 0., Hist. Syntax der griech. Komparative in d. klass.

          Lit. Heft I (1893), II (1894), III (1895).

SCHWEIZER, E., Bericht uber die Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der

          griech. Sprachw. mit Ausschluss der Koine und der Dialekte

          in den Jahren 1890-1903 (Bursian's Jahresbericht, cxx, 1904,

          pp. 1-152).

________, Die griech. Sprache in Zeit d. Hellen. (N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt.,

          1901, vii, viii).

________, Grammatik der pergamen. Inschriften (1898).

________, Neugriech. Syntax und altgriech. (N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt., 1908,

          pp. 498-507).

SCHWYZER (SCHWEIZER), E., Die Weltsprachen des Altertums

          (1902).

SCOMP, H. A., The Case Absolute in the N. T. (Bibl. Sacra, April,

          1902).

SEYMOUR, T. D., Homeric Language and Verse (1902).

_________, Life in the Homeric Age (1907).

_________, The Use of the Gk. Aor. Part. (Trans. Am. Phil. Assoc., XII,

          1881, pp. 88 ff.).

S. H., Sanday and Headlam on Romans.

SHARP, G., Remarks on the Definitive Article in the Greek of the

          N. T. (1803).

SHEFFIELD, A. D., Grammar and Thinking (1912).

SIMCOX, W. H., The Language of the N. T. (1890).

_________, The Writers of the N. T.

SIMONSON, A., A Greek Grammar. 2 vols. (1903, 1908).

SMITH, R. H., The Theory of Conditional Sentences in Greek and

          Latin (1894).

SMYTH, H. W., The Sounds and Inflexions of Greek Dialects. I,

          Ionic (1894).

SODEN, H. VON, Die Schriften des N. T. in ihrer altesten erreich-

          baren Textgestalt. Teil I, Untersuch. (1902-1910); Teil II,

          Text und Apparat (1913).

_________, Griechisches N. T. Text mit kurzem Apparat (1913).

SOLMSEN, F., Beitrage zur griech. Wortforschung (1909).

_________, Inscriptiones graecae selectae (1905).

_________, Untersuch. zur griech. Laut- und Verslehre (1901).

lxxx     A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

SOPHOCLES, E. A., Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine

          Period (1888).

SOUTER, A., Novum Testamentum Graece (1910). The Revisers'

          Text with a New Apparatus Criticus.

SPIEKER, The Gen. Abs. in the Attic Orators (Am. J. of Ph., VI,

          pp. 310-343).

St. B., Standard Bible Dictionary (Ed. by M. W. Jacobus, 1909).

STAHL, J. M., Kritisch-historische Syntax des griech. Verbums

          der Mass. Zeit. (1907).

STAURAC, Uber den Gebr. d. Gen. bei Herodot.

STEINTHAL, H., Geschichte der Sprachwiss. bei den Griech. und

          Romern. 2. Aufl. (1890-1891).

__________, Introduction to the Psychology and Science of Language

          (1900).

STERENBOURG, The Use of the Cond. Sentence in the Alex. Ver-

          sion of the Pentateuch (1908).

STERRETT, J. R. S., Homer's Iliad with Grammar (1907).

STOCKS, H., Das neutestamentliche Griechisch im Lichte der mo-

          dernen Sprachforschung (Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, XXIV.

          Jahrgang, 633-700).

STRACK, H. L., Grammatik des bibl. Aram. 4. Aufl. (1905).

STRONG, LOGEMAN and WHEELER, Introduction to the Study of

          the History of Lang. (1891).

STURM, J., Geschichtl. Entwick. der Konstrukt. mit πρίν (1882).

STURTEVANT, Studies in Greek Noun Formation (Labial Termi-

          nations, I, 1910; II, 1911; III and IV, 1913).

SUSEMIHL, Gesch. der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit. I (1891),

          II (1892).

SUTTERLIN, Gesch. der Verba denom. in Altgriech. (1891).

SWEET, History of Language (1900).

SWETE, H. B., Introduction to the O. T. in Greek (1900) . 2 Ed.,' 14.

________, The Apocalypse of St. John (1906).

________, The 0. T. in Greek according to the Septuagint (1887).

          3 vols.

SZUCZURAT, De Inf. Horn. Usu (1902).

TELFY, Chron. und Topogr. der griech. Ausspr. nach d. Zeugnisse

          der Inschr. (1893).

THACKERAY, H. ST., A Grammar of the 0. T. in Greek. Vol. I,

          Introduction, Orthography and Accidence (1909).

_________, Relation of St. Paul to Contemporary Thought (1900).

THAYER, J. H., Greek-English Lexicon of the N. T. (1887).

_________, Language of the N. T. (Hastings' D. B., 1900).

     LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO   lxxxi

 

THEIMER, A., Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Sprachgebr. im N. T.

          (1896).

Th. L.-Z., Theologische Literaturzeitung (Leipzig).

Th. R., Theologische Rundschau (Tubingen).

Th. St. u. Kr., Theol. Studien und Kritiken (Gotha).

THIEME, G., Die Inschr. von Magnesia am Maander und das

          N. T. (1906).

THOLUCK, Beitrage zur Spracherklarung des N. T.

THOMPSON, E. M., Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography

          (1893). New ed. (1913).

THOMPSON, F. E., A Syntax of Attic Greek. New ed. (1907).

THOMSON, J. E. H., The Language of Palestine during the Time

          of Our Lord (Temple Bible Dict.).

THOMSON, P., The Greek Tenses in the N. T. (1895).

THOUVENIN, P., Les Negations dans lc N. T. (Revue de Philologic,

          1894).

THUMB, A., Die Forsch. uber die hellen. Spr. in den Jahren

          1902-1904 (Arch. f. Pap. 3, pp. 443-473).

_________, Die griech. Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus (1901).

_________, Die sprachgesch. Steil. des bibl. Griech. (Theol. Rund., 1902).

_________, Handbuch der griech. Dial. (1909).

_________, Handbuch d. neugriech. Volkssprache. 2. Aufl. (1910).

_________, Handbuch des Sanskrits. I, Grammatik (1905).

_________, Unters. uber d. Sp. Asper im Griech. (1889).

THUMB-ANGUS, Handbook of the Modern Greek Vernacular

          (1912).

TISCH., Novum Testamentum Graece, by C. Tischendorf. Edi-

          tio octava critica major. 2 vols. (1869-1872).

TRENCH, R. C., Synonyms of the N. T. 11th ed. (1890). Deutsche

          Ausgabe von Werner (1907).

TSOUNTAS and MANATT, The Mycenaean Age (1897).

TUCKER, T. G., Introduction to the Natural History of Language

          (1908).

VANDACLE, L'Optatif Grec (1897).

VEITCH, W., Greek Verbs, Irregular and Defective. 2d ed. (1871).

VIERECK, P., Die griech. Papyruskunde (1899-1905). 34. Jahr-

          gang 1906. III. Abt. (1907).

_________, Die Papyrusliteratur in den 70 Jahren bis 1898 (1900).

          27. Jahrgang 1899. III. Abt.

_________, Sermo Graecus quo senatus populusque Romanus (1888).

VIERKE, De μή Particulae cum Indicativo Conjunctae Usu An-

          tiquiore (1876).

lxxxii   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

VINCENT and DICKSON, A Handbook to Modern Greek (1887).

VITEAU, J., Essai sur la syntax des voix dans le grec du N. T.,

          (Rev. de Phil., 1894).

________, Etude sur le grec du N. T. I, Le Verbe (1893); II, Le Suje,

          (1896).

VOGEL, H., Zur Charakteristik des Lukas nach Sprache und Stil

          (1899).

VOGRINZ, Grammatik d. hom. Dial. (1889).

VOLKER, F., Papyrorum graecorum syntaxis specimen (1900).

________, Syntax d. griech. Papyri. I, Der Artikel (1903).

VOTAW, C. W., The Use of the Infinitive in Bibl. Greek (1896).

WACKERNAGEL, J., Das Dehnungsgesetz der griech. Komposita

          (1889).

_________, Die hellenistische Gemeinsprache. (Die Kult. d. Gegenwart,

          Tl. I, Abt. viii, 1905, pp. 98-305).

__________, Die Sprache des Plut. etc. Teile I, II (1895-1896).

WAGNER, R., Questiones de epigrammatis graecis ex lapidibus

          collectis grammaticae (1883).

WALCH, Observationes in Matt. ex graecis inscriptionibus (1779).

WALKER, D., Elementary Greek Syntax (1897).

WARFIELD, B. B., An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of

          the N. T. New ed. (1914).

WARREN, WINIFRED, A Study of Conjunctional Temporal Clauses

          in Thucyd. (1897).

WEBER, P., Entwick. der Absichtssatze. Heft I (1884), Heft II

          (1885).

WECKLEIN, Curae epigraphicae ad grammaticam graecam et ad

          poetas scenicos pertinentes (1869).

WEISS, B., Der Gebr. des Artikels bei den Gottesnamen (Th.

          Stu. u. Krit., 1911, pp. 319-392).

__________, Textkritik (1894 ff.).

WEISS, J., Beitrage zur paulinischen Rhetorik (1897).

WELLHAUSEN, J., Einl. in die drei ersten Evangelien (1905).

          2. Ausg. (1911).

WENDLAND, P., Christentum und Hellenismus (1907).

__________, Hellen.-rom. Kultur. 3. Aufl. (1912).

WESSELEY, C., Die lat. Elemente in d. Gracitat d. dgypt. Pap.

          (Wien. Stud., xxiv, 1902).

__________, Lit. der Papyruskunde (Stud. zur Palaogr. und Pap. I,

          1901, pp. 17-20; II, 1902, pp. 43-52).

__________, Proleg. ad papyrorum graecorum novam collectionem eden-

          dam (1883).

     LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO    lxxxiii

 

WESTCOTT, B. F., Language of the N. T. (Smith's B. D.).

W. H., WESTCOTT and HORT'S Edition of the N. T. in the Original

          Greek. Numerous eds.

_________, The N. T. in the Original Greek. Introduction and Appen-

          dix (1882).

WEYMOUTH, On the Rendering into English of the Greek Aorist

          and Perfect (1894).

WHEELER, B. I., The Whence and the Whither of the Modern

          Science of Language (1905).

WHIBLEY, L., Companion to Greek Studies (1905). 2d ed. (1906).

WHITNEY, S. W., The Revisers' Greek Text. 2 vols. (1892).

WHITNEY, W. D., A Sanskrit Grammar (1891). 4th ed. (1913).

__________, Language and the Study of Language (1867).

__________, Life and Growth of Language (1875).

WILAMOWITZ-MOLLENDORFF, U. VON, Die griech. Literatur des

          Altertums (Die Kult. d. Gegenw., 1907, TI. I, Abt. viii, pp.

          3-238. 3. Aufl. 1912).

__________, Uber die Entstehung der griech. Schriftsprachen (Verf.

          deutscher Phil. and Schulm., 1879, pp. 36-41).

WILCKEN, U., Die Forschungen fiber die hellen. Spr. in den

          Jahren 1902-1904 (Archiv f. Pap., 1906, pp. 443-473).

WILHELM, A., Beitrage zur griech. Inschriftenkunde (1909).

WILHELMUS, De Modo Irreali qui Vocatur (1881).

WILKE, Neutestamentliche Rhetorik (1843).

WILLIAMS, C. B., The Participle in the Book of Acts (1908).

WILSON, A. J., Emphasis in the N. T. (Jour. of Th. Stud., VIII,

          pp. 75 ff.).

WINER, G. B., De verborum cum praep. compos. in N. T. Usu

          (1834-1843).

_________, Gramm. d. neut. Sprachidioms (1822). 7: Aufl. von Lflne-

          mann (1867).

WINER-MASSON, A Grammar of the N. T. Gk. (1859).

WINER-MOULTON, A Treatise of the Grammar of N. T. Gk. 3d

          ed. (1882). Various eds.

WINER-SCHMIEDEL, Winer's Grammatik des neutest. Sprach-

          idioms. 8. Aufl. (1894-).

WINER-THAYER, A Grammar of the Idiom of the N. T. (1869).

          Various eds.

WITKOWSKI, ST., Bericht uber die Lit. zur Koine aus den Jakiren

          1898-1902 (Bursian's Jahrb. CXX, 1904, pp. 153-256).

__________, Bericht uber die Lit. zur Koine aus den Jahren 1903-1906

          (Jahresber. f. Alt., 1912, III. Bd., 159).

lxxxiv   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

WITKOWSKI, ST., Epistulae privatae graecae (1906).

__________, Prodromus grammaticae papyrorum graecarum aetatis

          Lagidarum (1897).

Woch. f. Icl. Ph., Wochenschrift fur klassische Philologie.

WRIGHT, J., A Comparative Grammar of the Greek Language

          (1912).

WUNDT, Volkerpsychologie. 2. Aufi. (1904). 3. Aufl. (1911 f.).

YOUNG, Language of Christ (Hastings' D. C. G.).

ZAHN, TH., Einl. in das N. T. Bd. I (190G), II (1907).

__________, On the Language of Palestine. Vol. I, pp. 1-72. Introduc-

          tion to the N. T. Tr. by Jacobus (1909).

ZARNCKE, E., Die Entstehung der griech. Literatursprachen

          (1890).

ZEITLIN, The Acc. with Inf. and Some Kindred Constrs. in Eng-

          lish (1908).

ZEZSCHWITZ, Profangrac. und bibl. Sprachg. (1859).

ZIEMER, Vergl. Syntax der indog. Kompar. (1884).

Z. N.-T. W., Zeitschrift fur neut. Wissenschaft (Giessen).

 

 

                   ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THIRD EDITION

 

BALLY, Le Langage et la Vie (1913).

BLOMFIELD, An Introduction to the Study of Language (1914).

BRUGMANN, Lehre von den Wortformen and ihren Gebrauch.

          III. Teil. 2. Lieferung (1917).

BUCK, Studies in Greek Noun-formation (Classical Philology, 1917

          and 1918).

COBERN, The New Archaeological Discoveries in their Bearing on

          the New Testament and Early Christian Literature. 2d ed.

          (1918).

DAWKINS, Modern Greek in Asia Minor (1916).

DEFERRARI, Lucian's Atticism. The Morphology of the Verb

          (1916).

DURHAM, The Vocabulary of Menander in Relation to the Koine

          1915).

DUTTON, Studies in Greek Prepositional Phrases: διά,  ἀπό,   ἐκ,  εἰς,

            ἐν (1916).

EAKIN, The Greek Article in First and Second Century Papyri

          (Am. J. of Phil., No. 147, 1916, pp. 333-340).

HEMPL, Early Cyprian Greek (Trans. Am. Phil. Assoc., 1916,

          pp. 229-248).

HERWERDEN, VAN, Lexicon Graecum Suppletorium et Dialecti-

          cum. 2d ed. (1910).

HOUGHTON, Saving Greek in the College (The Cl. Weekly, Dec. 11,

          1916).

KAERST, Geschichte des Hellenismus. 2d ed. (1917).

LIVINGSTONE, A Defense of Classical Education (1916).

MAIDHOF, Zur Begriffbestimmung der Koine besonders auf Grund

          des Attizisten Moiris (1912).

MAIGNIEN, Le Futur Grec (1912).

MEILLET, De Quelques Faits Grammaticaux (Revue des Etudes

          Grecques, July, 1916).

MILLER, C. W. E., Note on the Use of the Article before the Geni-

          tive of the Father's Name in Greek Papyri (Am. J. of Phil.,

          July, 1916, pp. 341-348).

MILLIGAN, Greek Papyri (The Expositor, March, 1918).

 

                                          lxxxv

 

lxxxvi   A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

MOULTON, J. H., From Egyptian Rubbish Heaps (1916).

________, The Christian Religion in the Sutdy and the Street (1918).

PETERSON, W., Origin of the Indo-Eur. Nominal Stem-suffixes

          (Am. J. of Phil., April and July, 1916).

__________, Syncretism in the Eur. Dative (Am. J. of Phil., Jan.,

          1918).

ROBINSON, Some Inverted Commas (The Expositor, March, 1916).

SANDYS, A Short History of Classical Scholarship (1915).

SLATEN, Qualitative Nouns in the Pauline Epistles and Their

          Translation in the Revised Version (1918).

SMITH, General Relative Clauses in Greek (The Review, May–

          June, 1917).

SMYTH, A Greek Grammar for Schools and Colleges (1916).

SONNENSCHEIN, The Ind. in Rel. Clauses (The Cl. Review, May–

          June, 1918).

STURTEVANT, Linguistic Change (1918).

TOD, Progress in Greek Epigraphy for 1914-1915 (The Journal of

          Hellenic Studies, Jan., 1916).

WACKERNAGEL, Ueber die Geschichte der Griechischen Sprache

          (1913).
__________, Sprachliche Untersuchungen zu Homer (Glotta, 7. 161

          319).

WEST, Value of the Classics (1917).

 

Table of Contents (Detailed)

 

(This TOC was generated by MS Word – there are some additional headings and subheading included in addition to the original TOC which omitted some outlne items.  Note: AT Robertson’s outline is not of a uniform pattern. Some chapters use the format I..A..1..a..α..i.   Other chapters use I..a..α.  Others are yet different. The outline in this document matches that of the MS Word headers and styles contained in the printed text of this document. All the original book’s TOC items are present, plus a few more.--Louis Sorenson.)

Notes for Electronic Edition.................................................................................................................. i

Quick-View Table of Contents.............................................................................................................. ii

PREFACE............................................................................................................................................................ vii

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.................................................................................................................. xv

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION................................................................................................................... xvii

LIST OF WORKS MOST OFTEN REFERRED TO.................................................................................... lxiii

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THIRD EDITION...................................................................... lxxxv

Table of Contents (Detailed)................................................................................................................. lxxxvii

PART I:   INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... - 1 -

CHAPTER I:  NEW MATERIAL........................................................................................................... 3

The Ideal Grammar?.................................................................................................................... 3

I.        The Pre-Winer Period.......................................................................................................... 3

II. The Service of Winer................................................................................................................ 4

(a)         WINER'S INCONSISTENCIES.............................................................................. 4

(b) WINER EPOCH-MAKING........................................................................................... 4

(b)         SCHMIEDEL.......................................................................................................... 4

(c)         BUTTMANN........................................................................................................... 5

(d)         BLASS..................................................................................................................... 5

II.       The Modern Period............................................................................................................. 5

(a)         DEISSMANN.......................................................................................................... 5

(b)         THUMB................................................................................................................... 6

(c)         MOULTON............................................................................................................. 6

(d)         OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS.................................................................................... 6

(e)         RICHNESS OF MATERIAL................................................................................... 7

IV. The New Grammatical Equipment for N. T. Study...................................................................... 8

(a)         COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY............................................................................. 8

1.      The Linguistic Revolution...................................................................................... 8

2. A Sketch of Greek Grammatical History................................................................... 8

3. The Discovery of Sanskrit. It.................................................................................... 10

4. From Bopp to Brugmann.......................................................................................... 10

(b) ADVANCE IN GENERAL GREEK GRAMMAR...................................................... 12

(c) CRITICAL EDITIONS OF GREEK AUTHORS......................................................... 13

(d) WORKS ON INDIVIDUAL WRITERS...................................................................... 13

(e) THE GREEK INSCRIPTIONS.................................................................................... 14

(f) FULLER KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIALECTS.......................................................... 16

(g) THE PAPYRI AND OSTRACA.................................................................................. 17

(h) THE BYZANTINE AND THE MODERN GREEK.................................................... 21

(i) THE HEBREW AND ARAMAIC................................................................................ 24

1. The Old View............................................................................................................ 24

2. A Change with Kennedy........................................................................................... 25

3. Deissmann's Revolt................................................................................................... 25

4. The Language of Jesus.............................................................................................. 26

(j) GRAMMATICAL COMMENTARIES........................................................................ 29

V. The New Point of View........................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER II:  THE HISTORICAL METHOD.............................................................................................. 31

I. Language as History................................................................................................................ 31

(a) COMBINING THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS.............................................................. 31

(b) PRACTICAL GRAMMAR A COMPROMISE........................................................... 32

II. Language as a Living Organism............................................................................................... 33

(a) THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE................................................................................... 33

(b) EVOLUTION IN LANGUAGE................................................................................... 34

(c) CHANGE CHIEFLY IN THE VERNACULAR.......................................................... 34

III. Greek not an Isolated Language............................................................................................. 36

(a) THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.......................................... 36

(b) THE COMMON BOND IN LANGUAGE................................................................... 37

(c) THE ORIGINAL INDO-GERMANIC SPEECH.......................................................... 38

(d) GREEK AS A " DIALECT" OF THE INDO-GERMANIC SPEECH......................... 39

IV. Looking at the Greek Language as a Whole............................................................................. 40

(a) DESCRIPTIVE HISTORICAL GRAMMAR............................................................... 41

(b) UNITY OE THE GREEK LANGUAGE...................................................................... 41

(c) PERIODS OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE.................................................................. 43

(d) MODERN GREEK IN PARTICULAR........................................................................ 44

V. The Greek Point of View......................................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER III:   THE ΚΟΙΝΗ............................................................................................................... 49

I. The Term Κοινή..................................................................................................................... 49

II. The Origin of the Κοινή......................................................................................................... 51

(a) TRIUMPH OF THE ATTIC......................................................................................... 51

(b) FATE OF THE OTHER DIALECTS........................................................................... 52

(c) PARTIAL KOINES...................................................................................................... 53

(d) EFFECTS OF ALEXANDER'S CAMPAIGNS........................................................... 53

(e) THE MARCH TOWARD UNIVERSALISM.............................................................. 54

III. The Spread of the Κοινή....................................................................................................... 54

(a) A WORLD-SPEECH................................................................................................... 54

(b) VERNACULAR AND LITERARY............................................................................. 56

1. Vernacular................................................................................................................. 56

2. Literary...................................................................................................................... 57

(c) THE ATTICISTIC REACTION................................................................................... 58

IV. The Characteristics of the Vernacular Kοινή........................................................................... 60

(a) VERNACULAR ATTIC THE BASE........................................................................... 60

(b) THE OTHER DIALECTS IN THE Κοινή................................................................... 62

(c) NON—DIALECTICAL CHANGES............................................................................ 64

(d) NEW WORDS, NEW FORMS OR NEW MEANINGS TO OLD WORDS............... 65

(e) PROVINCIAL INFLUENCES..................................................................................... 66

(f) THE PERSONAL EQUATION.................................................................................... 69

(g) RESUME..................................................................................................................... 71

Phonetics and Orthography........................................................................................... 71

Vocabulary.................................................................................................................... 72

Word-Formation........................................................................................................... 72

Accidence...................................................................................................................... 72

Syntax............................................................................................................................ 73

V. The Adaptability of the Κοινή to the Roman World.................................................................. 74

CHAPTER IV:   THE PLACE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE KOINH....................................................... 76

I. The New Testament Chiefly in the Vernacular Κοινή................................................................. 76

(a) NOT A BIBLICAL GREEK......................................................................................... 76

(b) PROOF THAT N. T. GREEK IS IN THE VERNACULAR Κοινή............................. 79

II. Literary Elements in the New Testament Greek........................................................................ 83

III. The Semitic Influence............................................................................................................ 88

(a) THE TRADITION........................................................................................................ 88

(b) THE VIEW OF DEISSMANN AND MOULTON...................................................... 89

(c) LITTLE DIRECT HEBREW INFLUENCE................................................................. 94

(d) A DEEPER IMPRESS BY THE LXX......................................................................... 96

(e) ARAMAISMS........................................................................................................... 102

(f) VARYING RESULTS................................................................................................ 106

IV. Latinisms and Other Foreign Words...................................................................................... 108

V. The Christian Addition.......................................................................................................... 112

VI. Individual Peculiarities......................................................................................................... 116

(a) MARK....................................................................................................................... 118

(b) MATTHEW............................................................................................................... 119

(c) LUKE......................................................................................................................... 120

(d) JAMES...................................................................................................................... 123

(e) JUDE.......................................................................................................................... 124

(f) PETER........................................................................................................................ 125

(h) WRITER OF HEBREWS.......................................................................................... 132

(i) JOHN.......................................................................................................................... 133

VII. N. T. Greek Illustrated by the Modern Greek Vernacular........................................................ 137

PART II ACCIDENCE..................................................................................................................................... 142

CHAPTER V:   WORD–FORMATION........................................................................................... 143

I. Etymology............................................................................................................................ 143

II. Roots.................................................................................................................................. 144

III. Words with Formative Suffixes............................................................................................. 146

(a) VERBS....................................................................................................................... 146

1. Primary or Primitive Verbs.................................................................................... 146

2. Secondary or Derivative Verbs............................................................................... 147

(b) SUBSTANTIVES...................................................................................................... 150

1. Primary or Primitive Substantives......................................................................... 150

2. Secondary or Derivative Substantives.................................................................... 151

(α) Those from verbs.............................................................................................. 151

(β) Those from substantives................................................................................... 154

(γ) Those from adjectives...................................................................................... 156

(c) ADJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 157

1. Primary or Primitive Adjectives............................................................................ 157

2. Secondary or Derivative Adjectives....................................................................... 158

(α) Those from verbs.............................................................................................. 158

(β) Those from substantives................................................................................... 158

(γ) Those from adjectives...................................................................................... 159

(δ) Those from adverbs.......................................................................................... 160

(d) THE ADVERB.......................................................................................................... 160

IV. Words Formed by Composition (Composita).......................................................................... 160

(a) KINDS OF COMPOUND WORDS IN GREEK:....................................................... 161

(b) INSEPARABLE PREFIXES...................................................................................... 161

(c) AGGLUTINATIVE COMPOUNDS.......................................................................... 163

1. Verbs....................................................................................................................... 163

2. Substantives............................................................................................................ 165

3. Adjectives............................................................................................................... 168

4. Adverbs................................................................................................................... 169

V. Personal Names Abbreviated or Hypocoristic......................................................................... 171

VI. The History of Words.......................................................................................................... 173

VII. The Kinship of Greek Words................................................................................................ 174

VIII. Contrasts in Greek Words or Synonyms............................................................................... 175

CHAPTER VI:  ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONETICS.................................................................................. 177

I. The Uncertainty of the Evidence............................................................................................. 177

(a) THE ANCIENT LITERARY SPELLING.................................................................. 177

(b) THE DIALECT-COLOURED VERNACULAR........................................................ 178

(c) THE UNCIALS.......................................................................................................... 179

(d) THE PAPYRI............................................................................................................. 181

II. Vowel-Changes.................................................................................................................... 181

(a) THE CHANGES (INTERCHANGES) WITH α........................................................ 182

α and ε......................................................................................................................... 182

ε and α......................................................................................................................... 184

α and η......................................................................................................................... 184

α and ο........................................................................................................................ 184

α and ω........................................................................................................................ 185

α and αι....................................................................................................................... 185

α and αυ...................................................................................................................... 185

αι and ε........................................................................................................................ 186

(b) THE CHANGES WITH ε.......................................................................................... 187

ε and ει......................................................................................................................... 187

ε and η......................................................................................................................... 187

ε and ι.......................................................................................................................... 188

ε and o......................................................................................................................... 189

ἐάν and ἄν................................................................................................................... 190

(c) THE CHANGES WITH η.......................................................................................... 191

η and ι.......................................................................................................................... 191

η and ει........................................................................................................................ 192

ηι and ει....................................................................................................................... 193

η and ῃ......................................................................................................................... 194

η and υ......................................................................................................................... 195

(d) THE CHANGES WITH ι........................................................................................... 195

ι and ει......................................................................................................................... 195

εἰ for ι.......................................................................................................................... 197

ι. and ο......................................................................................................................... 198

ι and οι........................................................................................................................ 198

ι and υ.......................................................................................................................... 198

(e) THE CHANGES WITH ο.......................................................................................... 199

o and ου....................................................................................................................... 199

o and υ......................................................................................................................... 200

o and ω........................................................................................................................ 200

ω and ο........................................................................................................................ 201

(f) THE CHANGES WITH υ.......................................................................................... 201

υ and ευ....................................................................................................................... 201

υ and ου...................................................................................................................... 202

(g) THE CHANGES WITH ω......................................................................................... 202

ω and ου...................................................................................................................... 202

ω and ωϋ..................................................................................................................... 203

(h) CONTRACTION AND SYNCOPE........................................................................... 203

(i) DIPHTHONGS AND DIAERESIS............................................................................. 204

(j) APHAERESIS AND PROTHETIC VOWELS........................................................... 205

(k) ELISION.................................................................................................................... 206

(l) CRASIS...................................................................................................................... 208

III. Consonant-Changes............................................................................................................ 209

(a) ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE CONSONANTS.......................................... 209

(b) THE INSERTION OF CONSONANTS..................................................................... 210

(c) THE OMISSION OF CONSONANTS....................................................................... 210

(d) SINGLE OR DOUBLE CONSONANTS................................................................... 211

Doubling of the Aspirate............................................................................................ 215

(e) ASSIMILATION OF CONSONANTS...................................................................... 215

(f) INTERCHANGE AND CHANGING VALUE OF CONSONANTS.......................... 217

(g) ASPIRATION OF CONSONANTS........................................................................... 219

(h) VARIABLE FINAL CONSONANTS........................................................................ 219

(i) METATHESIS........................................................................................................... 221

IV. Breathings.......................................................................................................................... 221

(a) ORIGIN OF THE ASPIRATE.................................................................................... 221

(b) INCREASING DE-ASPIRATION (Psilosis)............................................................. 222

(c) VARIATIONS IN THE MSS. (Aspiration and Psilosis)........................................... 223

(d) TRANSLITERATED SEMITIC WORDS................................................................. 225

(e) THE USE OF BREATHINGS WITH ρ AND ρρ...................................................... 225

(f) THE QUESTION OF Αὑτοῦ...................................................................................... 226

V. Accent................................................................................................................................ 226

(a) THE AGE OF GREEK ACCENT.............................................................................. 226

(b) SIGNIFICANCE OF ACCENT IN THE Κοινή......................................................... 228

(c) SIGNS OF ACCENT................................................................................................. 229

(d) LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN ACCENT................................................................. 229

(e) N.T. PECULIARITIES............................................................................................... 230

1. Shortening Stem-Vowels........................................................................................ 230

2. Separate Words....................................................................................................... 231

3. Difference in Sense................................................................................................. 232

4. Enclitics (and Proclitics)........................................................................................ 233

5. Proper Names.......................................................................................................... 235

6. Foreign Words........................................................................................................ 235

VI. Pronunciation in the Κοινή.................................................................................................. 236

VII. Punctuation....................................................................................................................... 241

(a) THE PARAGRAPH................................................................................................... 241

(b) SENTENCES............................................................................................................. 242

(c) WORDS..................................................................................................................... 243

(d) THE EDITOR'S PREROGATIVE............................................................................. 244

CHAPTER VII:   THE DECLENSIONS (ΚΛΙΣΕΙΣ)................................................................................... 246

I. THE SUBSTANTIVE (TO ὌNOMA)...................................................................................... 246

1. History of the Declensions......................................................................................... 246

2. The Number of the Cases (πτώσεις)......................................................................... 247

(a) THE HISTORY OF THE FORMS OF THE CASES............................................. 247

(b) THE BLENDING OF CASE—ENDINGS............................................................. 249

(c) ORIGIN OF CASE, SUFFIXES............................................................................. 250

3. Number (ἀριθμός) in Substantives............................................................................ 251

4. Gender (γένος) in Substantives................................................................................. 252

(a) VARIATIONS IN GENDER.................................................................................. 252

(b) INTERPRETATION OF THE LXX...................................................................... 254

(c) VARIATIONS IN GENDER DUE TO HETEROCLISIS AND METAPLASM.... 254

5. The First or α Declension........................................................................................... 254

(a) THE DORIC GENITIVE—ABLATIVE SINGULAR α........................................ 254

(b) THE ATTIC GENITIVE-ABLATIVE................................................................... 255

(c) Vocative in —α of masc. nouns in -της................................................................ 256

(d) WORDS IN –ρα AND PARTICIPLES IN —υῖα.................................................. 256

(e) THE OPPOSITE TENDENCY TO (d).................................................................. 256

(f) DOUBLE DECLENSION...................................................................................... 257

(g) HETEROCLISIS (ἑτερόκλισις) AND METAPLASM (μεταπληασμός)........... 257

(h) INDECLINABLE SUBSTANTIVES..................................................................... 259

6. The Second or o Declension....................................................................................... 259

(a) THE SO-CALLED ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION.......................................... 260

(b) CONTRACTION................................................................................................... 260

(c) THE VOCATIVE................................................................................................... 261

(d) HETEROCLISIS AND METAPLASM................................................................. 261

(e) THE MIXED DECLENSION................................................................................ 263

(f) PROPER NAMES.................................................................................................. 263

7. The Third Declension................................................................................................. 263

(a) THE NOMINATIVE AS VOCATIVE................................................................... 264

(b) THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR......................................................................... 264

(c) THE ACCUSATIVE PLURAL.............................................................................. 265

(e) THE GENITIVE-ABLATIVE FORMS................................................................. 268

(f) CONTRACTION.................................................................................................... 268

(g) PROPER NAMES................................................................................................. 268

(h) HETEROCLISIS AND METAPLASM................................................................. 269

8. Indeclinable Words..................................................................................................... 269

II. THE ADJECTIVE (  ὌΝΟΜΑ   ἚΠΙΘΕΤΟΝ)...................................................................... 270

1. The Origin of the Adjective........................................................................................ 270

2. Inflection of Adjectives.............................................................................................. 271

(a) ADJECTIVES WITH ONE TERMINATION........................................................ 271

(b) ADJECTIVES WITH TWO TERMINATIONS.................................................... 272

(c) ADJECTIVES WITH THREE TERMINATIONS................................................. 273

(d) THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR......................................................................... 274

(e) CONTRACTION IN ADJECTIVES...................................................................... 274

(f) INDECLINABLE ADJECTIVES........................................................................... 275

3. Comparison of Adjectives.......................................................................................... 276

(a) THE POSITIVE (θετικὸν ὄνομα OR ὄνομα ἁπλοῦν)....................................... 276

(b) THE COMPARATIVE (συγκριτικὸν ὄνομα)..................................................... 276

(c) THE SUPERLATIVE (ὑπερθετικὸν ὄνομα)....................................................... 278

III. NUMERALS (  ἈΡΙΘΜΟΙ)................................................................................................... 281

1. The Origin of Numerals.............................................................................................. 281

2. Variety among Numerals............................................................................................ 281

(a) DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS................................................................................... 281

(b) THE CARDINALS (ὀνόματα ἀριθμητικά)......................................................... 281

(c) THE ORDINALS (ὀνόματα τακτικά).................................................................. 283

(d) DISTRIBUTIVES IN THE N. T............................................................................ 284

(e) NUMERAL ADVERBS......................................................................................... 284

IV. PRONOUNS (  ἈΝΤΩΝΥΜΙΑΙ).......................................................................................... 284

1. Idea of Pronouns......................................................................................................... 284

2. Antiquity of Pronouns................................................................................................. 285

3. Pronominal Roots....................................................................................................... 285

4. Classification.............................................................................................................. 286

(a) THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS............................................................................ 286

(b) THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.............................................................................. 287

(c) REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.................................................................................... 287

(d) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (κτητικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι)........................................... 288

(e) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (δεικτικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι)............................... 289

(f) RELATIVE PRONOUNS (ἀναφορικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι)......................................... 290

(g) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.......................................................................... 291

(h) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.................................................................................... 292

(i) DISTRIBUTIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS............................................. 292

V. ADVERBS ( ἘΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΑ)............................................................................................... 293

1. Neglect of Adverbs..................................................................................................... 293

2. Formation of the Adverb............................................................................................ 294

(a) FIXED CASES....................................................................................................... 294

(1) The Accusative.................................................................................................. 294

(2) The Ablative...................................................................................................... 295

(3) The Genitive...................................................................................................... 295

(4) The Locative...................................................................................................... 295

(5) The Instrumental............................................................................................... 295

(6) The Dative......................................................................................................... 296

(b) SUFFIXES............................................................................................................. 296

(c) COMPOUND ADVERBS...................................................................................... 296

(d) ANALOGY............................................................................................................ 297

(e) THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.................................................................... 297

3. Adverbial Stems.......................................................................................................... 297

(a) SUBSTANTIVES.................................................................................................. 298

(b) ADJECTIVES........................................................................................................ 298

(c) NUMERALS.......................................................................................................... 298

(d) PRONOUNS.......................................................................................................... 298

(e) VERBS................................................................................................................... 298

4. Use of Adverbs............................................................................................................ 299

(a) ADVERBS OF MANNER..................................................................................... 299

(b) ADVERBS OF PLACE......................................................................................... 299

(c) ADVERBS OF TIME............................................................................................ 300

5. Scope of Adverbs........................................................................................................ 300

(a) RELATION BETWEEN ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS............................... 301

(b) ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS..................................................................... 301

(c) ADVERBS AND INTENSIVE PARTICLES......................................................... 302

(d) ADVERBS AND INTERJECTIONS..................................................................... 302

CHAPTER VIII:   CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ( ῬΗΜΑ)..................................................................... 303

I. Difficulty of the Subject......................................................................................................... 303

II. Nature of the Verb............................................................................................................... 303

(a) VERB AND NOUN................................................................................................... 303

(b) MEANING OF THE VERB....................................................................................... 304

(c) PURE AND HYBRID VERBS.................................................................................. 304

III. The Building of the Verb...................................................................................................... 305

IV. The Survival of --μι Verbs.................................................................................................... 306

(a) A CROSS DIVISION................................................................................................. 306

(b) THE OLDEST VERBS.............................................................................................. 306

(c) GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE............................................................................... 306

(d) N. T. USAGE AS TO --μι VERBS............................................................................ 307

1.  The Second Aorists (active and middle)............................................................... 307

Βαίνω..................................................................................................................... 307

Γινώσκω................................................................................................................. 308

Δίδωμι..................................................................................................................... 308

Ἵημι......................................................................................................................... 309

Ἵστημι..................................................................................................................... 310

Ὀνίνημι.................................................................................................................. 310

Τίθημι..................................................................................................................... 310

Φημί......................................................................................................................... 310

2. Some —μι Presents................................................................................................. 311

Δείκ-νυ-μι............................................................................................................... 311

Δίδωμι..................................................................................................................... 311

Δύναμαι.................................................................................................................. 312

Εἰμί.......................................................................................................................... 312

Εἶμι.......................................................................................................................... 313

Ἐπίσταμαι............................................................................................................. 314

Ζεύγνυμι................................................................................................................ 314

Ζώννυμι................................................................................................................. 314

Ἧμαι....................................................................................................................... 314

Ἵημι......................................................................................................................... 314

Ἵστημι..................................................................................................................... 315

Κεῖμα...................................................................................................................... 316

Κρέμαμαι................................................................................................................ 316

Μίγνυμι.................................................................................................................. 317

Ὄλλυμι.................................................................................................................. 317

Ὄμνυμι.................................................................................................................. 317

Πίμπλημι................................................................................................................ 317

Πίμπρημι................................................................................................................ 318

Ῥήγνυμι.................................................................................................................. 318

Σβέννυμι................................................................................................................ 318

Στρώννυμι.............................................................................................................. 318

Τίθημι..................................................................................................................... 318

Φημί......................................................................................................................... 319

Χρή......................................................................................................................... 319

3. Some —μι Perfects................................................................................................. 319

θνήσκω................................................................................................................... 319

Οἶδα........................................................................................................................ 319

Ἵστημι..................................................................................................................... 319

V. The Modes (ἐγκλίσεις)........................................................................................................ 320

(a) THE NUMBER OF THE MOODS OR MODES (Modi).......................................... 320

(b) THE DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE MOODS.................................................... 321

(c) THE INDICATIVE (ὁριστικὴ ἔγκλισις).................................................................. 322

(d) THE SUBJUNCTIVE (ὑποτακτική)........................................................................ 323

(e) THE OPTATIVE (εὐκτική)....................................................................................... 325

(f) THE IMPERATIVE (προστακτική)......................................................................... 327

1. The Non-Thematic Stem......................................................................................... 327

2. The Thematic Stem................................................................................................. 327

3. The Suffix –θι......................................................................................................... 328

4. The Suffix –τω........................................................................................................ 328

5. The Old Injunctive Mood........................................................................................ 328

6. Forms in –σαι......................................................................................................... 329

7. The Form in —σον (λῦσον).................................................................................. 329

8. First Person............................................................................................................. 329

9. Prohibitions............................................................................................................. 330

10. Perfect Imperative................................................................................................. 330

11. Periphrastic Presents............................................................................................. 330

12. Circumlocutions.................................................................................................... 330

VI. The Voices (διαθέσεις)........................................................................................................ 330

(a) TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE....................................................................... 330

(b) THE NAMES OF THE VOICES............................................................................... 331

(c) THE RELATIVE AGE OF THE VOICES................................................................. 332

(d) THE SO-CALLED "DEPONENT " VERBS............................................................. 332

(e) THE PASSIVE SUPPLANTING THE MIDDLE...................................................... 333

(f) THE PERSONAL ENDINGS..................................................................................... 335

(g) CROSS-DIVISIONS.................................................................................................. 335

(h) THE ACTIVE ENDINGS.......................................................................................... 335

(i) THE MIDDLE ENDINGS.......................................................................................... 339

(j) PASSIVE ENDINGS.................................................................................................. 340

(k) CONTRACT VERBS................................................................................................ 341

Verbs in –αω............................................................................................................... 341

Verbs in -εω................................................................................................................ 342

Verbs in –οω............................................................................................................... 342

VII. The Tenses (χρόνοι).......................................................................................................... 343

(a) THE TERM TENSE.................................................................................................. 343

(b) CONFUSION IN NAMES......................................................................................... 344

(c) THE VERB-ROOT.................................................................................................... 344

(d) THE AORIST TENSE (ἀόριστος χρόνος).............................................................. 345

(e) THE PRESENT TENSE (ὁ ἐνεστὼς χρόνος).......................................................... 350

1. The Root Class........................................................................................................ 350

2. The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present............................................................... 350

3. The Non-Thematic Present with —να— and —νυ—........................................... 351

4. The Simple Thematic Present................................................................................. 351

5. The Reduplicated Thematic Present....................................................................... 351

6. The Thematic Present with a Suffix....................................................................... 351

(a) The ι class.......................................................................................................... 351

(β) The ν class........................................................................................................ 352

(γ) The σκ class...................................................................................................... 352

(δ) The τ class......................................................................................................... 352

(ε) The θ class......................................................................................................... 353

(f) THE FUTURE TENSE (ὁ μέλλων χρόνος)............................................................. 353

(g) THE PERFECT TENSES (τέλειοι χρόνοι).............................................................. 357

1. The Name................................................................................................................ 357

2. The Original Perfect. The....................................................................................... 357

3. The κ Perfect........................................................................................................... 358

4. The Aspirated Perfects............................................................................................ 359

5. Middle and Passive Forms...................................................................................... 359

6. The Decay of the Perfect Forms............................................................................. 359

7. The Perfect in the Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative............................................ 360

8. The Perfect Indicative............................................................................................. 360

9. Σ in Perfect Middle and Passive and Aorist Passive............................................. 362

(h) REDUPLICATION (διπλασιασμός or ἀναδίπλωσις).......................................... 362

1. Primitive................................................................................................................. 362

2. Both Nouns and Verbs............................................................................................ 362

3. In Three Tenses in Verbs........................................................................................ 362

4. Three Methods in Reduplication............................................................................ 363

5. Reduplication in the Perfect................................................................................... 363

(i) AUGMENT (αὔξησις).............................................................................................. 365

1. The Origin of Augment........................................................................................... 365

2. Where Found........................................................................................................... 365

3. The Purpose of Augment........................................................................................ 365

4. The Syllabic Augment (αὔξησις συλλαβική)...................................................... 365

5. The Temporal Augment (αὔξησις χρονκή).......................................................... 366

6. Compound Verbs (παρασύνθετα)........................................................................ 367

7. Double Augment..................................................................................................... 367

VIII. The Infinitive (ἡ ἀπαρέμφατος ἔγκλισις).......................................................................... 368

1. No Terminology at First............................................................................................. 368

2. Fixed Case-Forms....................................................................................................... 368

3. With Voice and Tense................................................................................................. 369

4. No Personal Endings................................................................................................... 370

5. Dative and Locative in Form...................................................................................... 370

6. The Presence of the Article........................................................................................ 371

7. The Disappearance of the Infinitive........................................................................... 371

8. Some N. T. Forms....................................................................................................... 371

IX. The Participle  (ἡ μετοχή).................................................................................................... 371

1. The Name.................................................................................................................... 371

2. Verbal Adjectives....................................................................................................... 372

3. True Participles........................................................................................................... 373

4. In Periphrastic Use...................................................................................................... 374

PART III    SYNTAX....................................................................................................................................... 378

CHAPTER IX:   THE MEANING OF SYNTAX (ΣΥΝΤΑΞΙΣ).................................................................... 379

I. Backwardness in the Study of Syntax...................................................................................... 379

II. New Testament Limitations.................................................................................................. 381

III. Recent Advance by Delbruck................................................................................................ 383

IV. The Province of Syntax........................................................................................................ 384

(a) THE WORD SYNTAX (σύνταξις).......................................................................... 384

(b) SCOPE OF SYNTAX................................................................................................ 385

(c) CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS AND CLAUSES.................................................... 385

(d) HISTORICAL SYNTAX........................................................................................... 386

(e) IRREGULARITIES.................................................................................................... 386

V. The Method of this Grammar................................................................................................ 387

(a) PRINCIPLES, NOT RULES...................................................................................... 387

(b) THE ORIGINAL SIGNIFICANCE............................................................................ 387

(c) FORM AND FUNCTION.......................................................................................... 387

(d) DEVELOPMENT...................................................................................................... 388

(e) CONTEXT................................................................................................................. 388

(f) TRANSLATION........................................................................................................ 389

(g) LIMITS OF SYNTAX............................................................................................... 389

CHAPTER X:   THE SENTENCE............................................................................................................ 390

I. The Sentence and Syntax....................................................................................................... 390

II. The Sentence Defined........................................................................................................... 390

(a) COMPLEX CONCEPTION....................................................................................... 390

(b) TWO ESSENTIAL PARTS....................................................................................... 390

(c) ONE-MEMBERED SENTENCE.............................................................................. 391

(d) ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE........................................................................................ 391

(e) ONLY PREDICATE.................................................................................................. 391

(f) ONLY SUBJECT....................................................................................................... 393

(g) VERB NOT THE ONLY PREDICATE..................................................................... 394

(h) COPULA NOT NECESSARY................................................................................... 395

(i) THE TWO RADIATING FOCI OF THE SENTENCE.............................................. 396

(j) VARIETIES OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE............................................................. 397

III. The Expansion of the Subject............................................................................................... 397

(a) IDEA-WORDS AND FORM-WORDS..................................................................... 397

(b) CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT.......................................................................... 397

(c) THE GROUP AROUND THE SUBJECT.................................................................. 398

1.Subordinate Clause.................................................................................................. 398

2. With the Article...................................................................................................... 398

3. The Adverb.............................................................................................................. 398

4. The Adjective.......................................................................................................... 398

5. The Substantive....................................................................................................... 398

(a) By an oblique case,............................................................................................ 398

(β) Apposition......................................................................................................... 398

IV. The Expansion of the Predicate............................................................................................ 400

(a) PREDICATE IN WIDER SENSE.............................................................................. 400

(b) THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE............................................................. 400

(c) THE RELATION BETWEEN THE PREDICATE AND SUBSTANTIVES............. 400

(d) THE PRONOUN........................................................................................................ 400

(e) ADJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 401

(f) THE ADVERB........................................................................................................... 401

(g) PREPOSITIONS........................................................................................................ 401

(h) NEGATIVE PARTICLES οὐ AND μή...................................................................... 401

(i) SUBORDINATE CLAUSES...................................................................................... 401

(j) APPOSITION WITH THE PREDICATE AND LOOSER AMPLIFICATIONS........ 401

V. Subordinate Centres in the Sentence...................................................................................... 402

VI. Concord in Person............................................................................................................... 402

VII. Concord in Number............................................................................................................ 403

(a) SUBJECT AND PREDICATE................................................................................... 403

1. Two Conflicting Principles..................................................................................... 403

2. Neuter Plural and Singular Verb............................................................................ 403

3. Collective Substantives.......................................................................................... 404

4. The Pindaric Construction...................................................................................... 404

5. Singular Verb with First Subject............................................................................ 405

6. The Literary Plural.................................................................................................. 406

(b) SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE......................................................................... 407

(c) REPRESENTATIVE SINGULAR............................................................................. 408

(d) IDIOMATIC PLURAL IN NOUNS........................................................................... 408

(e) IDIOMATIC SINGULAR IN NOUNS....................................................................... 409

(f) SPECIAL INSTANCES............................................................................................. 409

VIII. Concord in Gender............................................................................................................ 410

(a) FLUCTUATIONS IN GENDER................................................................................ 410

(b) THE NEUTER SINGULAR...................................................................................... 411

(C) EXPLANATORY ὅ ἐστιν AND τοῦ’ ἔστιν............................................................. 411

(d) THE PARTICIPLE.................................................................................................... 412

(e) ADJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 412

IX. Concord in Case.................................................................................................................. 413

(a) ADJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 413

(b) PARTICIPLES........................................................................................................... 413

(c) THE BOOK OF REVELATION................................................................................ 413

(d) OTHER PECULIARITIES IN APPOSITION............................................................ 416

(e) THE ABSOLUTE USE OF THE CASES (nominative, genitive, abla-.................... 416

tive and accusative)........................................................................................................ 416

X. Position of Words in the Sentence......................................................................................... 417

(a) FREEDOM FROM RULES....................................................................................... 417

(b)  PREDICATE OFTEN FIRST................................................................................... 417

(c) EMPHASIS................................................................................................................ 417

(d) THE MINOR WORDS IN A SENTENCE................................................................ 418

(e) EUPHONY AND RHYTHM..................................................................................... 419

(f) PROLEPSIS............................................................................................................... 423

(g) HYSTERON PROTERON......................................................................................... 423

(h) HYPERBATON......................................................................................................... 423

(i) POSTPOSITIVES....................................................................................................... 424

(j) FLUCTUATING WORDS......................................................................................... 424

(k) THE ORDER OF CLAUSES IN COMPOUND SENTENCES................................. 425

XI. Compound Sentences.......................................................................................................... 425

(a) TWO KINDS OF SENTENCES................................................................................ 425

(b) TWO KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES......................................................... 426

(c) PARATACTIC SENTENCES.................................................................................... 426

(d) HYPOTACTIC SENTENCES................................................................................... 426

XII. Connection in Sentences..................................................................................................... 427

(a) SINGLE WORDS...................................................................................................... 427

(b) CLAUSES.................................................................................................................. 428

1. Paratactic Sentences............................................................................................... 428

2. Hypotactic Sentences.............................................................................................. 429

3. The Infinitive and Participle as Connectives......................................................... 431

(c) TWO KINDS OF STYLE.......................................................................................... 432

(d) THE PARENTHESIS (παρένθεσις)........................................................................ 433

(e) ANACOLUTHON..................................................................................................... 435

1. The Suspended Subject........................................................................................... 436

2. Digression............................................................................................................... 437

3. The Participle in Anacolutha.................................................................................. 439

4. Asyndeton Due to Absence of δέ and ἀλλά........................................................... 440

(f) ORATIO VARIATA................................................................................................... 440

1. Distinction from Anacoluthon................................................................................ 440

2. Heterogeneous Structure......................................................................................... 441

3. Participles in Oratio Variata................................................................................... 442

4. Exchange of Direct and Indirect Discourse............................................................ 442

(g) CONNECTION BETWEEN SEPARATE SENTENCES.......................................... 443

(h) CONNECTION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS........................................................... 444

XIII. Forecast........................................................................................................................... 444

CHAPTER XI:   THE CASES (ΠΤΩΣΕΙΣ).............................................................................................. 446

I. History of the Interpretation of the Greek Cases...................................................................... 446

(a) CONFUSION............................................................................................................. 446

(b) BOPP'S CONTRIBUTION........................................................................................ 446

(c) MODERN USAGE.................................................................................................... 447

(d) GREEN'S CLASSIFICATION................................................................................... 447

(e) SYNCRETISM OF THE CASES............................................................................... 448

(f) FREEDOM IN USE OF CASE.................................................................................. 448

II. The Purpose of the Cases...................................................................................................... 449

(a) ARISTOTLE'S USAGE............................................................................................. 449

(b) WORD-RELATIONS................................................................................................ 449

III. The Encroachment of Prepositions on the Cases.................................................................... 450

(a) THE REASON........................................................................................................... 450

(b) NO "GOVERNING" OF CASES............................................................................... 450

(c) NOT USED INDIFFERENTLY................................................................................. 450

(d) ORIGINAL USE WITH LOCAL CASES.................................................................. 451

(e) INCREASING USE OF PREPOSITIONS................................................................. 451

(f) DISTINCTION PRESERVED IN THE N. T.............................................................. 452

IV. The Distinctive Idea of Each of the Cases.............................................................................. 453

(a) FUNDAMENTAL IDEA........................................................................................... 453

(b) CASES NOT USED FOR ONE ANOTHER............................................................. 454

(c) VITALITY OF CASE-IDEA...................................................................................... 454

(d) THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CASES.......................................... 454

(e) THE METHOD OF THIS GRAMMAR.................................................................... 456

V. The Nominative (πτῶσις ὀρθή, εὐθεῖα, ὀνομαστική)......................................................... 456

(a) NOT THE OLDEST CASE........................................................................................ 456

(b) REASON FOR THE CASE....................................................................................... 457

(C) PREDICATE NOMINATIVE................................................................................... 457

(d) SOMETIMES UNALTERED.................................................................................... 458

(e) THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE............................................................................ 459

(f) THE PARENTHETIC NOMINATIVE....................................................................... 460

(g) IN EXCLAMATIONS............................................................................................... 461

(h) USED AS VOCATIVE.............................................................................................. 461

VI. The Vocative (πτῶσις κλητική).......................................................................................... 461

(a) NATURE OF THE VOCATIVE................................................................................ 461

(b) VARIOUS DEVICES................................................................................................ 462

(c) USE OF ὦ WITH THE VOCATIVE......................................................................... 463

(d) ADJECTIVES USED WITH THE VOCATIVE........................................................ 464

(e) APPOSITION TO THE VOCATIVE......................................................................... 464

(f) VOCATIVE IN PREDICATE.................................................................................... 464

(g) THE ARTICLE WITH THE VOCATIVE................................................................. 465

VII. The Accusative (ἡ αἰτιατικὴ πτῶσις)................................................................................. 466

(a) THE NAME............................................................................................................... 466

(b) AGE AND HISTORY................................................................................................ 466

(c) THE MEANING OF THE ACCUSATIVE................................................................ 467

(d) WITH VERBS OF MOTION..................................................................................... 468

(e) EXTENT OF SPACE................................................................................................. 469

(f) EXTENT OF TIME.................................................................................................... 469

(g) WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS................................................................................... 471

(h) THE COGNATE ACCUSATIVE.............................................................................. 477

(i) DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE.......................................................................................... 479

(j) WITH PASSIVE VERBS........................................................................................... 484

(k) THE ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE.......................................................................... 486

(1) THE ACCUSATIVE BY ANTIPTOSIS.................................................................... 488

(m) THE ACCUSATIVE BY INVERSE ATTRACTION............................................... 488

(n) THE ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE......................................................... 489

(o) THE ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE............................................................................ 490

(p) THE ACCUSATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS........................................................... 491

VIII. The Genitive (True) Case (ἡ γενικὴ πρῶσις)....................................................................... 491

(a) TWO CASES WITH ONE FORM............................................................................. 491

(b) NAME INCORRECT................................................................................................ 492

(c) THE SPECIFYING CASE......................................................................................... 493

(d) THE LOCAL USE..................................................................................................... 494

(e) THE TEMPORAL USE............................................................................................. 495

(f) WITH SUBSTANTIVES............................................................................................ 495

1. The Possessive7 Genitive....................................................................................... 495

2. Attributive Genitive................................................................................................ 496

3. The Predicate Genitive........................................................................................... 497

4. Apposition or Definition......................................................................................... 498

5. The Subjective Genitive......................................................................................... 499

6. The Objective Genitive........................................................................................... 499

7. Genitive of Relationship......................................................................................... 501

8. Partitive Genitive.................................................................................................... 502

9. The Position of the Genitive................................................................................... 502

10. Concatenation of Genitives.................................................................................. 503

(g) THE GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES................................................................. 503

(h) THE GENITIVE WITH ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS..................................... 505

(i) THE GENITIVE WITH VERBS................................................................................ 505

1. Very Common......................................................................................................... 506

2. Fading Distinction from Accusative...................................................................... 506

4. Verbs of Emotion.................................................................................................... 508

5. Verbs of Sharing, Partaking and Filling................................................................. 509

6. Verbs of Ruling....................................................................................................... 510

7. Verbs of Buying, Selling, Being Worthy of........................................................... 510

8. Verbs of Accusing and Condemning...................................................................... 511

9. Genitive Due to Prepositions in Composition........................................................ 511

10. Attraction of the Relative..................................................................................... 512

(j) THE GENITIVE OF THE INFINITIVE..................................................................... 512

(k) THE GENITIVE ABSOLUTE................................................................................... 512

IX. The Ablative ("Ablatival Genitive") Case (ἡ ἀφαιρετικὴ πτῶσις)............................................ 514

(a) THE NAME............................................................................................................... 514

(b) THE MEANING........................................................................................................ 514

(c) RARE WITH SUBSTANTIVES................................................................................ 514

(d) THE ABLATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.................................................................... 515

(e) THE ABLATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS................................................................ 516

(f) THE ABLATIVE WITH VERBS............................................................................... 517

1. Verbs of Departure and Removal........................................................................... 518

2. Verbs of Ceasing, Abstaining................................................................................. 518

3. Verbs of Missing, Lacking, Despairing.................................................................. 518

4. Verbs of Differing, Excelling................................................................................. 519

5. Verbs of Asking and Hearing................................................................................. 519

6. Verbs with the Partitive Idea.................................................................................. 519

7. Attraction of the Relative....................................................................................... 519

X. The Locative (" Locatival Dative ") Case (ἡ τοπικὴ πτῶσις).................................................... 520

(a) THE NAME LOCATIVE........................................................................................... 520

(b) THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LOCATIVE............................................................. 520

(c) PLACE....................................................................................................................... 521

(d) TIME......................................................................................................................... 522

(e) LOCATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES............................................................................ 523

(f) LOCATIVE WITH VERBS....................................................................................... 523

(g) THE LOCATIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.............................................................. 524

(h) THE LOCATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS................................................................ 524

(i) THE PREGNANT CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOCATIVE.................................... 525

XI. The Instrumental (" Instrumental Dative ") Case (ἡ χρηστικὴ πτῶσις).................................... 525

(a) THE TERM INSTRUMENTAL................................................................................ 525

(b) SYNCRETISTIC?...................................................................................................... 526

(c) PLACE....................................................................................................................... 526

(d) TIME......................................................................................................................... 527

(e) THE ASSOCIATIVE IDEA....................................................................................... 528

(f) WITH WORDS OF LIKENESS AND IDENTITY.................................................... 530

(g) MANNER.................................................................................................................. 530

(h) DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE..................................................................................... 532

(i) CAUSE....................................................................................................................... 532

(j) MEANS...................................................................................................................... 532

(k) WITH PREPOSITIONS............................................................................................. 534

XII. The Dative (True) Case (ἡ δοτικὴ πτῶσις)........................................................................... 535

(a) SYNCRETISM.......................................................................................................... 535

(b) THE DECAY OF THE DATIVE............................................................................... 535

(c) THE IDEA OF THE DATIVE................................................................................... 536

(d) THE DATIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES................................................................... 536

(e) WITH ADJECTIVES................................................................................................. 537

(f) WITH ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS................................................................. 537

(g) WITH VERBS........................................................................................................... 538

1. Indirect Object........................................................................................................ 538

2. Dativus Commodi vel Incommodi......................................................................... 538

3. Direct Object........................................................................................................... 539

4. The Dative with Intransitive Verbs........................................................................ 541

5. Possession............................................................................................................... 541

6. Infinitive as Final Dative........................................................................................ 541

7. The Dative of the Agent.......................................................................................... 542

8. The Dative because of the Preposition................................................................... 542

(h) AMBIGUOUS EXAMPLES...................................................................................... 543

CHAPTER XII:   ADVERBS (  ἘΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΑ).................................................................................... 544

I. Special Difficulties................................................................................................................. 544

(a) NATURE OF THE ADVERB.................................................................................... 544

(b) THE NARROWER SENSE OF ADVERB................................................................ 544

II. Adverbs with Verbs............................................................................................................... 545

(a) COMMONEST USE.................................................................................................. 545

(b) N. T. USAGE............................................................................................................. 545

(c) PREDICATIVE USES WITH γίνομαι AND εἰμί..................................................... 545

(d) WITH   Ἔχω............................................................................................................. 546

(e) WITH PARTICIPLES................................................................................................ 546

(f) LOOSE RELATION TO THE VERB........................................................................ 546

III. Adverbs Used with Other Adverbs......................................................................................... 546

IV. Adverbs with Adjectives....................................................................................................... 546

V. Adverbs with Substantives..................................................................................................... 547

VI. Adverbs Treated as Substantives........................................................................................... 547

VII. The Pregnant Use of Adverbs.............................................................................................. 548

VIII. Adverbs as Marks of Style.................................................................................................. 548

IX. The Adverb Distinguished from the Adjective......................................................................... 549

(a) DIFFERENT MEANING........................................................................................... 549

(b) DIFFERENCE IN GREEK AND ENGLISH IDIOM................................................. 549

X. Adverbial Phrases................................................................................................................. 550

(a) INCIPIENT ADVERBS............................................................................................. 550

(b) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES................................................................................... 550

(c) PARTICIPLES........................................................................................................... 551

(d) THE VERB USED ADVERBIALLY........................................................................ 551

CHAPTER XIII:   PREPOSITIONS (ΠΡΟΘΕΣΕΙΣ)................................................................................. 553

I. The Name............................................................................................................................ 553

(a) SOME POSTPOSITIVE............................................................................................ 553

(b) NOT ORIGINALLY USED WITH VERBS.............................................................. 553

(c) EXPLANATION........................................................................................................ 553

II. The Origin of Prepositions..................................................................................................... 554

(a) ORIGINALLY ADVERBS........................................................................................ 554

(b) REASON FOR USE OF PREPOSITIONS................................................................ 554

(c) VARYING HISTORY................................................................................................ 555

III. Growth in the Use of Prepositions........................................................................................ 555

(a) ONCE NO PREPOSITIONS...................................................................................... 555

(b) THE PREPOSITIONS STILL USED AS ADVERBS IN HOMER........................... 555

(c) DECREASING USE AS ADVERBS AFTER HOMER............................................ 555

(d) SEMITIC INFLUENCE IN N. T................................................................................ 556

(e) IN MODERN GREEK............................................................................................... 557

IV. Prepositions in Composition with Verbs................................................................................ 557

(a) NOT THE MAIN FUNCTION................................................................................... 557

(b) PREPOSITION ALONE............................................................................................ 558

(c) INCREASING USE................................................................................................... 558

(d) REPETITION AFTER VERB.................................................................................... 559

(e) DIFFERENT PREPOSITION AFTER VERB............................................................ 560

(f) SECOND PREPOSITION NOT NECESSARY......................................................... 562

(g) EFFECT OF PREPOSITION ON MEANING OF THE VERB................................. 562

(h) DROPPING THE PREPOSITION WITH SECOND VERB...................................... 563

(i) INTENSIVE OR PERFECTIVE................................................................................. 563

(j) DOUBLE COMPOUNDS.......................................................................................... 565

V. Repetition and Variation of Prepositions................................................................................ 565

(a) SAME PREPOSITION WITH DIFFERENT CASES................................................ 565

(b) REPETITION WITH SEVERAL NOUNS................................................................ 566

(c) REPETITION WITH THE RELATIVE..................................................................... 566

(d) CONDENSATION BY VARIATION........................................................................ 567

VI. The Functions of Prepositions with Cases.............................................................................. 567

(a) THE CASE BEFORE PREPOSITIONS..................................................................... 567

(b) NOTION OF DIMENSION....................................................................................... 567

(C) ORIGINAL FORCE OF THE CASE......................................................................... 567

(d) THE GROUND-MEANING OF THE PREPOSITION.............................................. 568

(e) THE OBLIQUE CASES ALONE WITH PREPOSITIONS....................................... 568

(f) ORIGINAL FREEDOM............................................................................................. 568

(g) NO ADEQUATE DIVISION BY CASES.................................................................. 569

(h) SITUATION IN THE N. T......................................................................................... 569

1. Those with One Case.............................................................................................. 570

2. Those with Two Cases............................................................................................ 570

3. Those with Three Cases.......................................................................................... 570

4. Possibly Four with ἐπί............................................................................................ 570

(i) EACH PREPOSITION IN A CASE............................................................................ 570

VII. Proper Prepositions in the N. T............................................................................................ 571

(a) Ἀνά............................................................................................................................ 571

(b) Ἀντί........................................................................................................................... 572

(c)  Ἀπό.......................................................................................................................... 574

1. Original Significance.............................................................................................. 575

2. Meaning 'Back.'....................................................................................................... 576

3. "Translation-Hebraism" in φοβεῖσθαι ἀπό.......................................................... 577

4. Comparison with ἐκ................................................................................................ 577

5. Comparison with παρά.......................................................................................... 578

6. Compared with ὑπό................................................................................................ 579

(d) Διά............................................................................................................................. 580

1. The Root-Idea.......................................................................................................... 580

2. 'By Twos' or 'Between.'........................................................................................... 580

3. 'Passing Between' or 'Through.'.............................................................................. 581

4. 'Because of.'............................................................................................................ 583

(e)  Ἐν............................................................................................................................. 584

1. Old Use of ἐν with Accusative or Locative............................................................ 584

2.  Ἐν Older than εἰς................................................................................................... 585

3. Place........................................................................................................................ 586

4. Expressions of Time............................................................................................... 586

5. 'Among.'.................................................................................................................. 587

6. 'In the Case of,' ‘in the Person of’ or simply 'in.'................................................... 587

7. As a Dative?............................................................................................................ 588

8. Accompanying Circumstance................................................................................. 588

9. 'Amounting to,' ‘Occasion,’ ‘Sphere.’.................................................................... 589

10. Instrumental Use of ἐν.......................................................................................... 589

(f) Εἰς.............................................................................................................................. 591

1. Original Static Use.................................................................................................. 591

2. With Verbs of Motion............................................................................................. 593

3. With Expressions of Time...................................................................................... 594

4. Like a Dative........................................................................................................... 594

5. Aim or Purpose....................................................................................................... 594

6. Predicative Use....................................................................................................... 595

7. Compared with ἐπί, παρά and πρός..................................................................... 596

(g)  Ἐκ (ἐξ)..................................................................................................................... 596

1. Meaning.................................................................................................................. 596

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 596

3. Place........................................................................................................................ 597

4. Time........................................................................................................................ 597

5. Separation............................................................................................................... 597

6. Origin or Source...................................................................................................... 598

7. Cause or Occasion................................................................................................... 598

8. The Partitive Use of ἐκ........................................................................................... 599

9.  Ἐκ and ἐν............................................................................................................... 599

(h)  Ἐπί........................................................................................................................... 600

1. Ground-Meaning..................................................................................................... 600

2. In Composition in the N. T..................................................................................... 600

3. Frequency in N. T................................................................................................... 600

4. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 601

5. With the Genitive.................................................................................................... 602

6. With the Locative................................................................................................... 604

7. The True Dative...................................................................................................... 605

(i) Κατά.......................................................................................................................... 605

1. Root-Meaning......................................................................................................... 605

2. Distributive Sense................................................................................................... 606

3. κατά in Composition.............................................................................................. 606

4. With the Ablative.................................................................................................... 606

5. With the Genitive.................................................................................................... 607

6. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 607

(j) Μετά.......................................................................................................................... 609

1. The Root-Meaning.................................................................................................. 609

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 609

3. Compared with σύν................................................................................................ 609

4. Loss of the Locative Use........................................................................................ 610

5. With the Genitive.................................................................................................... 610

6. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 612

(k) Παρά......................................................................................................................... 612

1. Significance............................................................................................................ 612

2. Compared with πρός.............................................................................................. 613

3. In Composition........................................................................................................ 613

4. With the Locative................................................................................................... 614

5. With the Ablative.................................................................................................... 614

6. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 615

(l) Περί............................................................................................................................ 616

1. The Root-Meaning.................................................................................................. 617

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 617

3. Originally Four Cases Used.................................................................................... 617

4. With the Ablative.................................................................................................... 617

5. With the Genitive.................................................................................................... 618

6. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 619

(m) Πρό.......................................................................................................................... 620

1. The Original Meaning............................................................................................. 620

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 620

3. The Cases Used with πρό....................................................................................... 621

4. Place........................................................................................................................ 621

5. Time........................................................................................................................ 621

6. Superiority.............................................................................................................. 622

(n) Πρός.......................................................................................................................... 622

1. The Meaning........................................................................................................... 622

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 623

3. Originally with Five Cases..................................................................................... 623

4. The Ablative............................................................................................................ 623

5. With the Locative................................................................................................... 624

6. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 624

(o) Σύν............................................................................................................................ 626

1. The Meaning........................................................................................................... 626

2. History..................................................................................................................... 627

3. In Composition........................................................................................................ 627

4. N. T. Usage.............................................................................................................. 628

(p)  Ὑπέρ........................................................................................................................ 628

1. The Meaning........................................................................................................... 629

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 629

3. With Genitive?........................................................................................................ 629

4. With Ablative.......................................................................................................... 630

5. The Accusative with ὑπέρ...................................................................................... 632

(q)  Ὑπό......................................................................................................................... 633

1. The Original Meaning............................................................................................. 633

2. In Composition........................................................................................................ 633

3. The Cases Once Used with ὑπό............................................................................. 634

4. With the Accusative................................................................................................ 635

5. With the Ablative.................................................................................................... 635

VIII. The "Adverbial" Prepositions.............................................................................................. 636

1.   Ἅμα........................................................................................................................... 638

2.  Ἄνευ........................................................................................................................... 638

3.  Ἄντικρυς................................................................................................................... 638

4.  Ἀντίπερα................................................................................................................... 638

5.  Ἀπέναντι................................................................................................................... 639

6.  Ἄτερ........................................................................................................................... 639

7.  Ἄχρι(ς)...................................................................................................................... 639

8.  Ἐγγύς........................................................................................................................ 639

9.  Ἐκτός......................................................................................................................... 640

10.  Ἔμπροσθεν............................................................................................................ 640

11.  Ἔναντι..................................................................................................................... 640

12.   Ἐναντίον................................................................................................................ 640

13.  Ἕνεκα...................................................................................................................... 641

14.  Ἐντός....................................................................................................................... 641

15.  Ἐνώπιον................................................................................................................. 641

16.  Ἔξω......................................................................................................................... 642

17.  Ἔξωθεν................................................................................................................... 642

18.  Ἐπ-άνω................................................................................................................... 642

19.  Ἐπέκεινα................................................................................................................. 642

20.   Ἔσω....................................................................................................................... 642

21.   Ἕως........................................................................................................................ 643

22. Κατέναντι................................................................................................................. 643

23. Κατενώπιον............................................................................................................. 644

24. Κυκλόθεν................................................................................................................. 644

25. Κύκλῳ...................................................................................................................... 644

26. Μέσον....................................................................................................................... 644

27. Μεταξύ..................................................................................................................... 645

28. Μέχρι........................................................................................................................ 645

29.   Ὄπισθεν................................................................................................................ 645

30.   Ὀπίσω................................................................................................................... 645

31.  Ὀψέ.......................................................................................................................... 645

32. Παρα-πλήσιον........................................................................................................ 646

33. Παρ-εκτός................................................................................................................ 646

34. Πέραν....................................................................................................................... 646

35.  Πλήν, Doric πλάν................................................................................................... 646

36. Πλησίον, Doric πλατίον......................................................................................... 646

37.   Ὑπερ-άνω.............................................................................................................. 646

38.   Ὑπερ-έκεινα.......................................................................................................... 647

39.   Ὑπερ-εκ-περισσοῦ............................................................................................... 647

40.  Ὑπο-κάτω.............................................................................................................. 647

41. Χάριν........................................................................................................................ 647

42. Χωρίς....................................................................................................................... 647

IX. Compound Prepositions....................................................................................................... 648

X. Prepositional Circumlocutions............................................................................................... 648

(a) Μέσον....................................................................................................................... 648

(b)  Ὄνομα.................................................................................................................... 649

(c) Πρόσωπον............................................................................................................... 649

(d) Στόμα........................................................................................................................ 649

(e) Χείρ........................................................................................................................... 649

CHAPTER XIV:  ADJECTIVES ( ἘΠΙΘΕΤΑ)................................................................................ 650

I. Origin of Adjectives............................................................................................................... 650

II. The Adjectival or Appositional Use of the Substantive............................................................. 651

III. The Adjective as Substantive................................................................................................ 652

(a) ANY GENDER.......................................................................................................... 652

(b) WITH MASCULINE ADJECTIVES......................................................................... 652

(c) WITH FEMININE ADJECTIVES............................................................................. 652

(d) WITH THE NEUTER................................................................................................ 653

IV. Agreement of Adjectives with Substantives........................................................................... 654

(a) IN NUMBER............................................................................................................. 654

(b) IN GENDER.............................................................................................................. 655

(c) IN CASE.................................................................................................................... 655

(d) Two or MORE ADJECTIVES................................................................................... 655

V. The Attributive Adjective....................................................................................................... 655

VI. The Predicate Adjective....................................................................................................... 656

VII. Adjective Rather than Adverb.............................................................................................. 657

VIII. The Personal Construction................................................................................................. 657

IX. Adjectives Used with Cases.................................................................................................. 658

X. Adjectives with the Infinitive and Clauses............................................................................... 658

XI. The Adjective as Adverb....................................................................................................... 659

XII. The Positive Adjective......................................................................................................... 659

(a) RELATIVE CONTRAST........................................................................................... 659

(b) USED AS COMPARATIVE OR SUPERLATIVE.................................................... 660

(c) WITH PREPOSITIONS............................................................................................. 661

(d) COMPARISON IMPLIED BY ἤ............................................................................... 661

(e) IN ABSOLUTE SENSE............................................................................................. 661

XIII. The Comparative Adjective (συγκριτικὸν ὄνομα)............................................................... 662

(a) CONTRAST OR DUALITY...................................................................................... 662

(b) DEGREE.................................................................................................................... 663

(c) WITHOUT SUFFIXES.............................................................................................. 663

(d) DOUBLE COMPARISON......................................................................................... 663

(e) WITHOUT OBJECT OF COMPARISON................................................................. 664

(f) FOLLOWED BY ἤ..................................................................................................... 666

(g) FOLLOWED BY THE ABLATIVE.......................................................................... 666

(h) FOLLOWED BY PREPOSITIONS........................................................................... 667

(i) THE COMPARATIVE DISPLACING THE SUPERLATIVE................................... 667

XIV. The Superlative Adjective (ὑπερθετικὸν ὄνομα)................................................................. 669

(a) THE SUPERLATIVE VANISHING.......................................................................... 669

(b) A FEW TRUE SUPERLATIVES IN THE N. T........................................................ 669

(c) THE ELATIVE SUPERLATIVE............................................................................... 670

(d) NO DOUBLE SUPERLATIVES............................................................................... 670

(e) FOLLOWED BY ABLATIVE................................................................................... 670

(f) No “HEBRAISTIC” SUPERLATIVE........................................................................ 671

XV. Numerals........................................................................................................................... 671

(a) Εἷς AND Πρῶτος..................................................................................................... 671

(b) THE SIMPLIFICATION OF THE “ TEENS.”.......................................................... 672

(d) THE DISTRIBUTIVES.............................................................................................. 673

(e) THE CARDINAL Ἑπτά............................................................................................ 673

(f) SUBSTANTIVE NOT EXPRESSED......................................................................... 674

(g) ADVERBS WITH NUMERALS............................................................................... 674

(h) Εἷς AS INDEFINITE ARTICLE................................................................................ 674

(i) Εἷς= Τις..................................................................................................................... 675

(j) THE DISTRIBUTIVE USE OF Εἷς............................................................................ 675

CHAPTER XV:   PRONOUNS ( ἈΝΤΩΝΥΜΙΑΙ).......................................................................... 676

I. Personal Pronouns (πρωτότυποι ἢ προσωπικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι)........................................... 676

(a) THE NOMINATIVE.................................................................................................. 676

1. The First Person, ἐγώ and ἡμεῖς............................................................................ 677

2. The Second Person, σύ and ὑμεῖς.......................................................................... 678

3. The Third Person..................................................................................................... 679

(b) THE OBLIQUE CASES OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.................................. 680

1. Originally Reflexive............................................................................................... 680

2. Αὐτοῦ...................................................................................................................... 681

3. Genitive for Possession.......................................................................................... 681

4. Enclitic Forms......................................................................................................... 681

(c) THE FREQUENCY OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS......................................... 682

(d) REDUNDANT........................................................................................................... 683

(e) ACCORDING TO SENSE......................................................................................... 683

(f) REPETITION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE................................................................... 684

II. The Possessive Pronouns (κτητικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι).................................................................. 684

(a) JUST THE ARTICLE................................................................................................ 684

(b) ONLY FOR FIRST AND SECOND PERSONS........................................................ 684

(c) EMPHASIS, WHEN USED....................................................................................... 684

(d) WITH THE ARTICLE............................................................................................... 685

(e) POSSESSIVE AND GENITIVE TOGETHER........................................................... 685

(f) OBJECTIVE USE...................................................................................................... 685

(g) INSTEAD OF REFLEXIVE...................................................................................... 685

III. The Intensive and Identical Pronoun (σύντονος ἀντωνυμία)................................................. 685

(a) THE NOMINATIVE USE OF Αὐτός........................................................................ 685

(b) VARYING DEGREES OF EMPHASIS.................................................................... 686

(c) Αὐτός WITH Οὗτος................................................................................................. 686

(d) Αὐτός ALMOST DEMONSTRATIVE..................................................................... 686

(e) IN THE OBLIQUE CASES....................................................................................... 686

(f)  Αὐτός SIDE BY SIDE WITH THE REFLEXIVE.................................................... 687

(g)  Ὁ Αὐτός.................................................................................................................. 687

IV. The Reflexive Pronoun (ἀντανακλαστικὴ ἀντωνυμία)........................................................ 687

(a) DISTINCTIVE USE................................................................................................... 687

(b) THE ABSENCE OF THE REFLEXIVE FROM THE NOMINATIVE..................... 688

(c) THE INDIRECT REFLEXIVE.................................................................................. 688

(d) IN THE SINGULAR.................................................................................................. 688

(e) IN THE PLURAL...................................................................................................... 689

(f) ARTICLE WITH........................................................................................................ 690

(g) REFLEXIVE IN THE RECIPROCAL SENSE.......................................................... 690

(h) REFLEXIVE WITH MIDDLE VOICE...................................................................... 690

(i) THE USE OF   Ἴδιος................................................................................................. 691

V. The Reciprocal Pronoun (ἡ ἀμοιβαία ἀντωνυμία)................................................................ 692

VI. Demonstrative Pronouns (δεικτικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι)................................................................ 693

(a) NATURE................................................................................................................... 693

(b) DIFFERENT SHADES OF MEANING.................................................................... 693

(c)   Ὁ, ἡ, τό................................................................................................................... 693

(d)   Ὅς.......................................................................................................................... 695

(e)  Ὅδε.......................................................................................................................... 696

(f) Οὗτος........................................................................................................................ 697

1. The Purely Deictic.................................................................................................. 697

2. The Contemptuous Use of οὗτος........................................................................... 697

3. The Anaphoric Use................................................................................................. 697

4. In Apposition........................................................................................................... 698

5. Use of the Article.................................................................................................... 700

6. Article Absent......................................................................................................... 701

7.  Οὗτος in Contrast with ἐκεῖνος............................................................................ 702

8. As Antecedent of the Relative Pronoun................................................................. 703

9. Gender and Number of οὗτος................................................................................. 704

10. The Adverbial Uses of τοῦτο and ταῦτα............................................................. 704

11. The Phrase τοῦτ’ ἔστιν......................................................................................... 705

12. In Combination with Other Pronouns................................................................... 705

13. Ellipsis of  οὗτος.................................................................................................. 705

14. Shift in Reference................................................................................................. 706

(g)  Ἐκεῖνος.................................................................................................................... 706

1. The Purely Deictic.................................................................................................. 707

2. The Contemptuous Use (cf. οὗτος)........................................................................ 707

3. The Anaphoric......................................................................................................... 707

4. The Remote Object (Contrast)................................................................................ 707

5. Emphasis................................................................................................................. 708

6. With Apposition...................................................................................................... 708

7. Article with Nouns except when Predicate............................................................ 708

8. As Antecedent to Relative...................................................................................... 708

9. Gender and Number................................................................................................ 708

10. Independent Use.................................................................................................... 709

(h) Αὐτός........................................................................................................................ 709

(i) THE CORRELATIVE DEMONSTRATIVES............................................................ 709

VII. Relative Pronouns (’αναφορικαὶ ἀντωνυμίαι).................................................................... 710

(a) LIST IN THE N. T..................................................................................................... 710

(b) THE NAME "RELATIVE."....................................................................................... 711

(c) A BOND BETWEEN CLAUSES.............................................................................. 711

(d)   Ὅς.......................................................................................................................... 711

1. In Homer................................................................................................................. 711

2. Comparison with Other Relatives.......................................................................... 711

3. With Any Person..................................................................................................... 712

4. Gender..................................................................................................................... 712

5. Number.................................................................................................................... 714

6. Case......................................................................................................................... 714

(α) Absence of attraction normal........................................................................... 714

(β) Cognate accusative........................................................................................... 715

(γ) Attraction to the case of the antecedent........................................................... 715

(δ) Inverse attraction.............................................................................................. 717

(ε) Incorporation..................................................................................................... 718

(1) The simplest form......................................................................................... 718

(2)[Change of Case]............................................................................................ 719

(3) [Attraction of Relative to Antecedent]......................................................... 719

7. Absence of Antecedent........................................................................................... 719

8. Prepositions with the Antecedent and Relative...................................................... 721

9. Relative Phrases...................................................................................................... 721

10. Pleonastic Antecedent........................................................................................... 722

11. The Repetition of ὅς............................................................................................. 723

12. A Consecutive Idea............................................................................................... 724

13. Causal.................................................................................................................... 724

14. In Direct Questions............................................................................................... 725

15. In Indirect Questions............................................................................................. 725

16. The Idiom οὐδείς ἐστιν ὅς................................................................................... 726

(e)   Ὅστις..................................................................................................................... 726

1. Varied Uses............................................................................................................. 726

2. The Distinction between ὅς and ὅστις................................................................... 726

3. The Indefinite Use................................................................................................... 727

4. The Definite Examples........................................................................................... 727

5. Value of ὅς?............................................................................................................ 728

6. Case......................................................................................................................... 728

7. Number.................................................................................................................... 729

8. Gender..................................................................................................................... 729

9. Direct Questions..................................................................................................... 729

10. Indirect Questions................................................................................................. 730

(f) Οἷος........................................................................................................................... 731

1. Relation to ὅς.......................................................................................................... 731

2. Incorporation........................................................................................................... 731

3. Indirect Question..................................................................................................... 731

4. Number.................................................................................................................... 731

5. Οἷόν τέ ἐστιν.......................................................................................................... 732

(g)   Ὁποῖος................................................................................................................... 732

1. Qualitative............................................................................................................... 732

2. Double Office.......................................................................................................... 732

3. Correlative.............................................................................................................. 732

(h)   Ὅσος...................................................................................................................... 732

1. Quantitative............................................................................................................. 732

2. Antecedent.............................................................................................................. 732

3. Attraction................................................................................................................ 732

4. Incorporation........................................................................................................... 733

5. Repetition................................................................................................................ 733

6. With ἄν................................................................................................................... 733

7. Indirect Questions................................................................................................... 733

8. In Comparison......................................................................................................... 733

9. Adverbial................................................................................................................. 733

(i)   Ἡλίκος.................................................................................................................... 733

(j)  Ὁ AS RELATIVE..................................................................................................... 734

VIII. Interrogative Pronouns (ἀντωνυμίαι ἐρωτητικαί)............................................................. 735

(a) Τίς............................................................................................................................. 735

1. Substantival or Adjectival...................................................................................... 735

2. The Absence of Gender........................................................................................... 735

3. Τίς=ποῖος.............................................................................................................. 735

4. Indeclinable τί......................................................................................................... 736

5. Predicate Use of τί with τοῦτο............................................................................... 736

6. In Alternative Questions......................................................................................... 736

7. The Double Interrogative........................................................................................ 737

8. As Relative.............................................................................................................. 737

9. Adverbial Use......................................................................................................... 738

10. With Prepositions................................................................................................. 739

11. With Particles....................................................................................................... 739

12. As Exclamation..................................................................................................... 739

13. Indirect Questions................................................................................................. 739

14. Τίς or τίς............................................................................................................... 739

(b) Ποῖος........................................................................................................................ 740

1. Qualitative............................................................................................................... 740

2. Non-qualitative....................................................................................................... 740

3. In Indirect Questions............................................................................................... 740

(c) Πόσος....................................................................................................................... 740

1. Less Frequent than ποῖος....................................................................................... 740

2. Meaning.................................................................................................................. 740

3. In Indirect Questions............................................................................................... 741

4. The Exclamatory Use.............................................................................................. 741

(d) Πηλίκος.................................................................................................................... 741

1. Rare......................................................................................................................... 741

2. Indirect Questions................................................................................................... 741

(e) Ποταπός................................................................................................................... 741

(f) Πότερος..................................................................................................................... 741

IX. Indefinite Pronouns (ἀντωνυμίαι ἀόριστοι)........................................................................ 741

(a) Τὶς............................................................................................................................. 741

1. The Accent.............................................................................................................. 741

2. Relation to τίς......................................................................................................... 741

3.  Τις as Substantive................................................................................................. 742

4. With Numerals = 'About.'....................................................................................... 742

5. With Substantives................................................................................................... 742

6. With Adjectives...................................................................................................... 743

7. As Predicate............................................................................................................ 743

8. The Position of τις.................................................................................................. 743

9. As Antecedent......................................................................................................... 743

10. Alternative............................................................................................................ 743

11. The Negative Forms οὔ τις, μή τις....................................................................... 743

12. Indeclinable τι....................................................................................................... 744

(b) Εἷς = Τις................................................................................................................... 744

(c) Πᾶς =‘any one’ no matter who,................................................................................ 744

(d)  Ὁ Δεῖνα................................................................................................................... 744

X. Alternative or Distributive Pronouns (ἀντωνυμίαι δατηρίαι).................................................. 744

(a)  Ἀμφότεροι................................................................................................................ 744

(b)  Ἕκαστος................................................................................................................. 745

1. Without Substantive............................................................................................... 745

2. With Substantive..................................................................................................... 745

3. With  εἷς.................................................................................................................. 746

4. With Genitive.......................................................................................................... 746

5. Partitive Apposition................................................................................................ 746

6. Rare in Plural.......................................................................................................... 746

7. Repetition................................................................................................................ 746

(c)  Ἄλλος...................................................................................................................... 746

1. Used absolutely = ‘An-other,’ ‘One Other.’........................................................... 746

2. For Two................................................................................................................... 746

3. As Adjective............................................................................................................ 747

4. With the Article...................................................................................................... 747

5. The Use of ἄλλος ἄλλο = 'One One Thing, One Another.'................................... 747

6. In Contrast for 'Some — Others.'........................................................................... 747

7. Ellipsis of ἄλλος.................................................................................................... 747

8. The Use of ἄλλος and ἕτερος Together................................................................. 747

9.  ἄλλος =’Different.’............................................................................................... 747

10. Ἀλλότριος............................................................................................................ 748

(d)  Ἕτερος..................................................................................................................... 748

1. Absolutely............................................................................................................... 748

2. With Article............................................................................................................ 748

3. Second of Pair......................................................................................................... 748

4. =’Different.’............................................................................................................ 748

5. =’Another’ of Three or More.................................................................................. 749

6. In Contrast............................................................................................................... 749

(e) OTHER ANTITHETIC PRONOUNS........................................................................ 750

XI. Negative Pronouns (ἀντωνυμίαι ἀρνητικαί)....................................................................... 750

(a) Οὐδείς....................................................................................................................... 750

1. History..................................................................................................................... 750

2. Οὐθείς.................................................................................................................... 750

3. Gender..................................................................................................................... 751

4. Οὐδὲ εἷς.................................................................................................................. 751

5. Εἷς —οὐ.................................................................................................................. 751

(b) Μηδείς...................................................................................................................... 751

(c) Οὔτις AND Μήτις.................................................................................................... 751

(d) WITH Πᾶς................................................................................................................ 752

1. Οὐ πᾶς................................................................................................................... 752

2. Οὐ—πᾶς................................................................................................................ 752

3. Μή — πᾶς.............................................................................................................. 752

4. Οὐ μή--πᾶν............................................................................................................ 753

5. Πᾶς — οὐ............................................................................................................... 753

6. Πᾶς — μή............................................................................................................... 753

7. Πᾶς — οὐ μή.......................................................................................................... 753

8. Οὐ — πάντες......................................................................................................... 753

9. Πάντες οὐ............................................................................................................... 753

CHAPTER XVI:   THE ARTICLE (ΤΟ   ἌΡΘΡΟΝ)...................................................................... 754

I. Other Uses of ὁ, ἡ τό............................................................................................................ 754

II. Origin and Development of the Article................................................................................... 754

(a) A GREEK CONTRIBUTION.................................................................................... 754

(b) DERIVED FROM THE DEMONSTRATIVE........................................................... 755

III. Significance of the Article.................................................................................................... 755

IV. The Method Employed by the Article.................................................................................... 756

(a) INDIVIDUALS FROM INDIVIDUALS.................................................................... 756

(b) CLASSES FROM OTHER CLASSES...................................................................... 757

(c) QUALITIES FROM OTHER QUALITIES................................................................ 758

V. Varied Usages of the Article.................................................................................................. 758

(a) WITH SUBSTANTIVES........................................................................................... 758

1. Context.................................................................................................................... 758

2. Gender of the Article.............................................................................................. 759

3. With Proper Names................................................................................................. 759

4. Second Mention (Anaphoric)................................................................................. 762

(b) WITH ADJECTIVES................................................................................................. 762

1. The Resumptive Article.......................................................................................... 762

2. With the Adjective Alone....................................................................................... 762

3. The Article not Necessary with the Adjective....................................................... 763

4. With Numerals........................................................................................................ 764

(c) WITH PARTICIPLES................................................................................................ 764

(d) WITH THE INFINITIVE........................................................................................... 765

(e) WITH ADVERBS...................................................................................................... 765

(f) WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES........................................................................ 766

(g) WITH SINGLE WORDS OR WHOLE SENTENCES.............................................. 766

(h) WITH GENITIVE ALONE........................................................................................ 767

(i) NOUNS IN THE PREDICATE.................................................................................. 767

(j) DISTRIBUTIVE......................................................................................................... 769

(k) NOMINATIVE WITH THE ARTICLE =VOCATIVE.............................................. 769

(l) As THE EQUIVALENT OF A POSSESSIVE PRONOUN........................................ 769

(m) WITH POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.......................................................................... 770

(n) WITH Αὐτός............................................................................................................. 770

(o) WITH DEMONSTRATIVES.................................................................................... 770

(p) WITH   Ὅλος, Πᾶς (  Ἅπας)................................................................................. 771

(q) WITH Πολύς............................................................................................................ 774

(r)   Ἄκρος,  Ἥμισυς,  Ἔσχατος,  Μέσος.................................................................. 775

(s) WITH   Ἄλλος AND   Ἕτερος................................................................................. 775

(t) Μόνος........................................................................................................................ 776

VI. Position with Attributives..................................................................................................... 776

(a) WITH ADJECTIVES................................................................................................. 776

1. The Normal Position of the Adjective.................................................................... 776

2. The Other Construction (Repetition of the Article)............................................... 776

3. Article Repeated Several Times............................................................................. 777

4. One Article with Several Adjectives...................................................................... 777

5. With Anarthrous Substantives................................................................................ 777

6. With Participles...................................................................................................... 777

(b) WITH GENITIVES.................................................................................................... 779

1. The Position between the Article and the Substantive........................................... 779

2. Genitive after the Substantive without Repetition of the Article.......................... 779

3. Repetition of Article with Genitive........................................................................ 780

4. The Article Only with Genitive.............................................................................. 780

5. Article Absent with Both........................................................................................ 780

6. The Correlation of the Article................................................................................ 780

(c) WITH ADJUNCTS OR ADVERBS. In..................................................................... 782

1. Between the Article and the Noun.......................................................................... 782

2. Article Repeated..................................................................................................... 782

3. Only with Adjunct................................................................................................... 782

4. Only with the Noun................................................................................................. 782

5. When Several Adjuncts Occur................................................................................ 783

6. Phrases of Verbal Origin........................................................................................ 784

7. Exegetical Questions.............................................................................................. 784

8. Anarthrous Attributives.......................................................................................... 784

(d) SEVERAL ATTRIBUTIVES WITH Καί.................................................................. 785

1. Several Epithets Applied to the Same Person or Thing......................................... 785

2. When to be Distinguished....................................................................................... 786

3. Groups Treated as One............................................................................................ 787

4. Point of View.......................................................................................................... 787

5. Difference in Number............................................................................................. 788

6. Difference in Gender.............................................................................................. 788

7. With Disjunctive Particle....................................................................................... 789

VII. Position with Predicates..................................................................................................... 789

VIII. The Absence of the Article................................................................................................. 790

(a) WITH PROPER NAMES.......................................................................................... 791

(b) WITH GENITIVES.................................................................................................... 791

(c) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES................................................................................... 791

(d) WITH BOTH PREPOSITION AND GENITIVE....................................................... 792

(e) TITLES OF BOOKS OR SECTIONS........................................................................ 793

(f) WORDS IN PAIRS.................................................................................................... 793

(g) ORDINAL NUMERALS........................................................................................... 793

(h) IN THE PREDICATE................................................................................................ 794

(i) ABSTRACT WORDS................................................................................................ 794

(j) QUALITATIVE FORCE............................................................................................ 794

(k) ONLY OBJECT OF KIND........................................................................................ 794

IX. The Indefinite Article........................................................................................................... 796

CHAPTER XVII:   VOICE (ΔΙΑΘΕΣΙΣ, Genus)............................................................................. 797

I. Point of View........................................................................................................................ 797

(a) DISTINCTION BETWEEN VOICE AND TRANSITIVENESS............................... 797

(b) MEANING OF VOICE.............................................................................................. 798

(c) NAMES OF THE VOICES........................................................................................ 798

(d) HISTORY OF THE VOICES..................................................................................... 798

(e) HELP FROM THE SANSKRIT................................................................................. 798

(f) DEFECTIVE VERBS................................................................................................. 799

II. The Active Voice (διάθεσις ἐνεργετική)................................................................................ 799

(a) MEANING OF THE ACTIVE VOICE...................................................................... 799

(b) EITHER TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE........................................................... 799

(c) EFFECT OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.................................................. 800

(d) DIFFERENT TENSES VARY................................................................................... 800

(e) THE ACTIVE AS CAUSATIVE............................................................................... 801

(f) ACTIVE WITH REFLEXIVES.................................................................................. 802

(g) IMPERSONAL ACTIVE........................................................................................... 802

(h) INFINITIVES............................................................................................................. 802

(i) ACTIVE VERBS AS PASSIVES OF OTHER VERBS............................................. 802

III. The Middle Voice (διάθεσις μέση)....................................................................................... 803

(a) ORIGIN OF THE MIDDLE....................................................................................... 803

(b) MEANING OF THE MIDDLE.................................................................................. 803

(c) OFTEN DIFFERENCE FROM ACTIVE ACUTE..................................................... 804

(d) THE USE OF THE MIDDLE NOT OBLIGATORY................................................. 804

(e) EITHER TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE........................................................... 806

(f) DIRECT MIDDLE..................................................................................................... 806

(g) CAUSATIVE OR PERMISSIVE MIDDLE............................................................... 808

(h) INDIRECT MIDDLE................................................................................................. 809

(i) RECIPROCAL MIDDLE........................................................................................... 810

(j) REDUNDANT MIDDLE........................................................................................... 811

(k) DYNAMIC (DEPONENT) MIDDLE........................................................................ 811

(l) MIDDLE FUTURE, THOUGH ACTIVE PRESENT................................................. 813

(m) THE MIDDLE RETREATING IN THE N. T........................................................... 814

IV. The Passive Voice (διάθεσις παθητική)............................................................................... 814

(a) ORIGIN OF THE PASSIVE...................................................................................... 814

(b) SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PASSIVE......................................................................... 815

(c) WITH INTRANSITIVE OR TRANSITIVE VERBS................................................. 815

(d) THE PASSIVE USUALLY INTRANSITIVE............................................................ 816

(e) AORIST PASSIVE.................................................................................................... 816

(f) FUTURE PASSIVE.................................................................................................... 818

(g) THE AGENT WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE............................................................ 820

(h) IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION........................................................................... 820

CHAPTER XVIII:   TENSE (ΧΡΟΝΟΣ)........................................................................................ 821

I. Complexity of the Subject...................................................................................................... 821

1. THE DIFFICULTY OF COMPARING GREEK TENSES WITH GERMANIC TENSES.            821

2. BAD INFLUENCE OF THE LATIN ON GREEK GRAMMARIANS....................... 822

3. ABSENCE OF HEBREW INFLUENCE..................................................................... 822

4. GRADUAL GROWTH OF THE GREEK TENSES.................................................... 822

5. "AKTIONSART" OF THE VERB-STEM................................................................... 823

6. THE THREE KINDS OF ACTION EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF............................. 824

TENSE............................................................................................................................. 824

7. TIME ELEMENT IN TENSE...................................................................................... 824

8.  FAULTY NOMENCLATURE OF THE TENSES..................................................... 825

9. THE ANALYTIC TENDENCY (Periphrasis)............................................................ 826

10. THE EFFECT OF PREPOSITIONS ON THE VERB............................................... 826

11.  “AKTIONSART” WITH EACH TENSE................................................................. 828

12. INTERCHANGE OF TENSES.................................................................................. 829

II. Punctiliar Action................................................................................................................... 830

1. THE AORIST (ἀόριστος).......................................................................................... 831

(a) Aktionsart in the Aorist......................................................................................... 831

(α) Constative Aorist.............................................................................................. 831

(β) Ingressive Aorist............................................................................................... 834

(γ) Effective Aorist................................................................................................ 834

(b) Aorist Indicative.................................................................................................... 835

(α) The Narrative or Historical Tense.................................................................... 835

(β) The Gnomic Aorist........................................................................................... 836

(γ) Relation to the Imperfect.................................................................................. 837

(δ)  Relation to the Past Perfect............................................................................. 840

(ε) Relation to the Present...................................................................................... 841

(ζ) Relation to Present Perfect............................................................................... 843

(η) Epistolary Aorist............................................................................................... 845

(θ) Relation to the Future....................................................................................... 846

(ι) Aorist in Wishes................................................................................................ 847

(κ) Variations in the Use of Tenses........................................................................ 847

(λ) Translation of the Aorist into English.............................................................. 847

(c) The Aorist Subjunctive and Optative.................................................................... 848

(α) No Time Element in the Subjunctive and Optative......................................... 848

(β) Frequency of Aorist Subjunctive...................................................................... 848

(γ) Aktionsart......................................................................................................... 850

(δ) Aorist Subjunctive in Prohibitions................................................................... 851

(ε) Aorist Subjunctive with οὐ μή.......................................................................... 854

(ζ) Aorist Optative.................................................................................................. 854

(d) The Aorist Imperative........................................................................................... 855

(e) The Aorist Infinitive.............................................................................................. 856

(f) The Aorist Participle............................................................................................. 858

(α) Aktionsart......................................................................................................... 858

(β)   Ὁ and the Aorist Participle............................................................................ 859

(γ) Antecedent Action............................................................................................ 860

(δ) But Simultaneous Action is Common also...................................................... 860

(ε)  Subsequent Action not Expressed by the Aorist Participle............................. 861

(ζ) Aorist Participle in Indirect Discourse (Complementary Participle).............. 864

2. PUNCTILIAR (AORISTIC) PRESENT (ὁ ἐνεστὼς χρόνος).................................... 864

(a) The Specific Present.............................................................................................. 865

(b) The Gnomic Present.............................................................................................. 866

(c) The Historical Present........................................................................................... 866

(d) The Futuristic Present........................................................................................... 869

3. THE PUNCTILIAR (AORISTIC) FUTURE (ὁ μέλλων χρόνος).............................. 870

(a) Punctiliar or Durative............................................................................................ 870

(b) The Modal Aspect of the Future........................................................................... 872

(α) Merely Futuristic.............................................................................................. 873

(β)  The Volitive Future......................................................................................... 874

(γ) Deliberative Future........................................................................................... 875

(c) The Future in the Moods....................................................................................... 876

(α) The Indicative................................................................................................... 876

(β) The Subjunctive and Optative.......................................................................... 876

(γ) The Infinitive.................................................................................................... 876

(δ) The Participle.................................................................................................... 877

(d) The Periphrastic Substitutes for the Future.......................................................... 878

III. Durative (Linear) Action....................................................................................................... 879

1. INDICATIVE............................................................................................................... 879

(a) The Present (ὁ ἐνεστώς) for Present Time........................................................... 879

(α) The Descriptive Present.................................................................................... 879

(β) The Progressive Present................................................................................... 879

(γ) The Iterative or Customary Present.................................................................. 880

(δ) The Inchoative or Conative Present.................................................................. 880

(ε) The Historical Present....................................................................................... 880

(ζ) The Deliberative Present................................................................................... 880

(η) The Periphrastic Present................................................................................... 880

(θ) Presents as Perfects........................................................................................... 881

(ι) Perfects as Presents............................................................................................ 881

(κ) Futuristic Presents.  T....................................................................................... 881

(b) The Imperfect for Past Time (ὁ παρατατικός)................................................... 882

(α) Doubtful Imperfects.......................................................................................... 882

(β) The Descriptive Tense in Narrative................................................................. 883

(γ)  The Iterative (Customary) Imperfect.............................................................. 884

(δ)  The Progressive Imperfect............................................................................... 884

(ε) The Inchoative or Conative Imperfect.............................................................. 885

(ζ)  The "Negative" Imperfect................................................................................ 885

(η) The "Potential" Imperfect................................................................................. 885

(θ)  In Indirect Discourse........................................................................................ 887

(ι) The Periphrastic Imperfect................................................................................ 887

(κ) Past Perfects as Imperfects............................................................................... 888

(c) The Future for Future Time.................................................................................. 888

(α) The Three Kinds of Action in the Future (futuristic, volitive, deliberative).. 889

(β) The Periphrastic Future.................................................................................... 889

2. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE............................................................................. 889

3. IMPERATIVE............................................................................................................. 890

4. INFINITIVE................................................................................................................. 890

5. PARTICIPLE............................................................................................................... 891

(a) The Time of the Present Participle Relative......................................................... 891

(b) Futuristic............................................................................................................... 891

(c) Descriptive............................................................................................................ 891

(d) Conative................................................................................................................ 892

(e) Antecedent Time................................................................................................... 892

(f) Indirect Discourse.................................................................................................. 892

(g) With the Article.................................................................................................... 892

(h) Past Action Still in Progress................................................................................. 892

(i) "Subsequent" Action.............................................................................................. 892

(j) No Durative Future Participles.............................................................................. 892

IV. Perfected State of the Action (ὁ τέλειος ἢ συντελικός)......................................................... 892

1. THE IDEA OF THE PERFECT................................................................................... 892

(a) The Present Perfect............................................................................................... 892

(b) The Intensive Perfect............................................................................................ 893

(c) The Extensive Perfect........................................................................................... 893

(d) Idea of Time in the Tense..................................................................................... 894

2. THE INDICATIVE...................................................................................................... 894

(a) The Present Perfect (ὁ ἐνεσὼς συντελικὸς ἢ παρακείμενος)........................... 894

(α) The Intensive Present Perfect........................................................................... 894

(β) The extensive Present Perfect = a completed state.......................................... 895

(γ) The Present Perfect of Broken Continuity....................................................... 896

(δ) The Dramatic Historical Present Perfect.......................................................... 896

(ε) The Gnomic Present Perfect.............................................................................. 897

(ζ) The Perfect in Indirect Discourse..................................................................... 897

(η) Futuristic Present Perfect.................................................................................. 898

(θ) The "Aoristic" Present Perfect.......................................................................... 898

(ι) The Periphrastic Perfect.................................................................................... 902

(κ) Present as Perfect.............................................................................................. 903

(b) The last Perfect (ὁ ὑπερσυντελικός).................................................................. 903

(α) The Double Idea................................................................................................ 903

(β) A Luxury in, Greek........................................................................................... 903

(γ)  The Intensive Past Perfect............................................................................... 904

(δ) The Extensive Past Perfect............................................................................... 904

(ε) The Past Perfect of Broken Continuity2 (• • • > • • •)....................................... 905

(ζ)  Past Perfect in Conditional Sentences............................................................. 906

(η) The Periphrastic Past Perfect............................................................................ 906

(θ) Special Use of ἐκείμην..................................................................................... 906

(c) The Future Perfect  (ὁ μέλλων συντελικός)....................................................... 906

3. THE SUBIUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE..................................................................... 907

4. THE IMPERATIVE..................................................................................................... 908

5. THE INFINITIVE........................................................................................................ 908

(a) Indirect Discourse................................................................................................. 908

(b) Perfect Infinitive not in Indirect Discourse.......................................................... 909

(α) Subject or Object Infinitive.............................................................................. 909

(β) With Prepositions............................................................................................. 909

6. THE PARTICIPLE...................................................................................................... 909

(a) The Meaning.......................................................................................................... 909

(b) The Time of the Tense.......................................................................................... 909

(c) The Perfect Tense Occurs with Various Uses of the Participle........................... 910

(d) The Periphrastic Participle................................................................................... 910

CHAPTER XIX:  MODE (ἜΓΚΛΙΣΙΣ)........................................................................................... 911

Introductory............................................................................................................................ 911

A. INDEPENDENT OR PARATACTIC SENTENCES (ΠΑΡΑΤΑΚΤΙΚΑ  ἈΞΙΩΜΑΤΑ)...................... 914

I. The Indicative Mode (λόγος ἀποφαντικός or ἡ ὁριστικὴ ἔγκλισις)..................... 914

1. MEANING OF THE INDICATIVE MODE............................................................ 914

2. KINDS OF SENTENCES USING THE INDICATIVE........................................... 915

(a) Either Declarative or Interrogative................................................................... 915

(b) Positive and Negative....................................................................................... 917

3. SPECIAL USES OF THE INDICATIVE................................................................. 918

(a) Past Tenses........................................................................................................ 918

(α) For Courtesy................................................................................................. 918

(β) Present Necessity, Obligation, Possibility, Propriety in Tenses of he Past. 919

(γ) The Apodosis of Conditions of the Second Class........................................ 921

(δ) Impossible Wishes........................................................................................ 923

(b) The Present........................................................................................................ 923

(c) The Future......................................................................................................... 924

II. The Subjunctive Mode (ἡ ὑποτακτικὴ ἔγκλισις).................................................... 924

1. RELATIONS TO OTHER MODES........................................................................ 924

(a) The Aorist Subjunctive and the Future Indicative............................................ 924

(b) The Subjunctive and the Imperative................................................................. 925

(c) The Subjunctive and the Optative..................................................................... 925

2. ORIGINAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE......................................... 926

3. THREEFOLD USAGE............................................................................................ 928

(a) Futuristic........................................................................................................... 928

(b) Volitive.............................................................................................................. 930

(c) Deliberative....................................................................................................... 934

III. The Optative Mode (ἡ εὐκτικὴ ἔγκλισις)................................................................ 935

1. HISTORY OF THE OPTATIVE............................................................................. 935

2. SIGNIFICANCE...................................................................................................... 936

3. THE THREE USES................................................................................................. 937

(a) Futuristic or Potential....................................................................................... 937

(b) Volitive.............................................................................................................. 939

(c) Deliberative....................................................................................................... 940

IV. The Imperative (ἡ προστατικὴ ἔγκλισις)............................................................... 941

1. ORIGIN OF THE IMPERATIVE............................................................................ 941

2. MEANING OF THE IMPERATIVE....................................................................... 941

3. DISAPPEARANCE OF THE IMPERATIVE FORMS........................................... 941

4. ALTERNATIVES FOR THE IMPERATIVE.......................................................... 942

(a) The Future Indicative........................................................................................ 942

(b) The Subjunctive................................................................................................ 943

(c) The Optative...................................................................................................... 943

(d) The Infinitive..................................................................................................... 943

(e) The Participle.................................................................................................... 944

5. USES OF THE IMPERATIVE................................................................................ 946

(a) Command or Exhortation.................................................................................. 946

(b) Prohibition......................................................................................................... 947

(c) Entreaty............................................................................................................. 947

(d) Permission......................................................................................................... 948

(e) Concession or Condition................................................................................... 948

(f) In Asyndeton...................................................................................................... 949

(g) In Subordinate Clauses...................................................................................... 949

(h) The Tenses......................................................................................................... 950

(i) In Indirect Discourse.......................................................................................... 950

B. DEPENDENT OR HYPOTACTIC SENTENCES (ΥΠΟΤΑΚΤΙΚΑ ἈΞΙΩΜΑΤΑ)............................ 950

Introductory..................................................................................................................... 950

(a) Use of Modes in Subordinate Sentences............................................................... 950

(b) The Use of Conjunctions in Subordinate Clauses................................................ 951

(c) Logical Varieties of Subordinate Clauses............................................................ 952

1. RELATIVE SENTENCES........................................................................................... 953

(a) Relative Sentences Originally Paratactic............................................................. 953

(b) Most Subordinate Clauses Relative in Origin...................................................... 953

(c) Relative Clauses Usually Adjectival.................................................................... 954

(d) Modes in Relative Sentences................................................................................ 955

(e) Definite and Indefinite Relative Sentences.......................................................... 956

(f) The Use of ἄν in Relative Clauses........................................................................ 957

(g) Special Uses of Relative Clauses.......................................................................... 960

(h) Negatives in Relative Clauses.............................................................................. 962

2. CAUSAL SENTENCES.............................................................................................. 962

(a) Paratactic Causal Sentences.................................................................................. 962

(b) With Subordinating Conjunctions........................................................................ 963

(d) Διὰ τό and the Infinitive....................................................................................... 966

(e) The Participle........................................................................................................ 966

3. COMPARATIVE CLAUSES...................................................................................... 966

(a) The Relative ὅσος................................................................................................. 966

(b) Relative ὅς with κατά........................................................................................... 967

(c) Καθότι in a Comparative Sense........................................................................... 967

(d)   Ὡς  and its Compounds..................................................................................... 967

4. LOCAL CLAUSES..................................................................................................... 969

5. TEMPORAL CLAUSES............................................................................................. 970

(a) Kin to Relative Clauses in Origin and Idiom........................................................ 970

(b) Conjunctions Meaning ‘When.'............................................................................ 971

(c) The Group Meaning 'Until' ('While').................................................................... 974

(d) Some Nominal and Prepositional Phrases............................................................ 977

(e) The Temporal Use of the Infinitive...................................................................... 978

(f) Temporal Use of the Participle............................................................................. 979

6. FINAL AND CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.................................................................. 980

(a) Kinship.................................................................................................................. 980

(b) Origin in Parataxis................................................................................................ 980

(c) Pure Final Clauses................................................................................................. 981

(α)  Ἵνα.................................................................................................................. 981

(β)   Ὅπως............................................................................................................ 985

(γ)  Ὡς................................................................................................................... 987

(δ) Μή, μή ποτε, μή πως....................................................................................... 987

(ε) Relative Clauses................................................................................................ 989

(ζ)  The Infinitive.................................................................................................... 989

(η) The Participle.................................................................................................... 991

(d) Sub-Final Clauses................................................................................................. 991

(α)   Ἵνα................................................................................................................. 991

(β)   Ὅπως............................................................................................................ 994

(γ) Μή, μή πως, μή ποτε....................................................................................... 995

(δ) The Relative Clause.......................................................................................... 996

(ε) The Infinitive..................................................................................................... 996

(ζ) Εἰ and ὅτι........................................................................................................... 997

(e) Consecutive Clauses.............................................................................................. 997

(α)   Ἵνα................................................................................................................. 997

(β)   Ὥστε.............................................................................................................. 999

(γ)   Ὡς................................................................................................................ 1000

(δ)   Ὅτι............................................................................................................... 1001

(ε) The Relative..................................................................................................... 1001

(ζ) The Infinitive................................................................................................... 1001

7. WISHES.................................................................................................................... 1003

8. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES................................................................................. 1004

(a) Two Types........................................................................................................... 1004

(b) Four Classes........................................................................................................ 1007

(α) Determined as Fulfilled.................................................................................. 1007

(β)  Determined as Unfulfilled............................................................................. 1012

(γ) Undetermined, but with Prospect of Determination...................................... 1016

(δ)  Remote Prospect of Determination............................................................... 1020

(c) Special Points...................................................................................................... 1022

(α ) Mixed Conditions.......................................................................................... 1022

(β)  Implied Conditions........................................................................................ 1022

(γ) Elliptical Conditions....................................................................................... 1023

(δ) Concessive Clauses......................................................................................... 1026

(ε) Other Particles with εἰ and ἐάν....................................................................... 1027

9. INDIRECT DISCOURSE (Oratio Obliqua).............................................................. 1027

(a) Recitative   Ὅτε in Oratio Recta........................................................................ 1027

(b) Change of Person in Indirect Discourse............................................................. 1028

(c) Change of Tense in Indirect Discourse............................................................... 1029

(d) Change of Mode in Indirect Discourse............................................................... 1030

(e) The Limits of Indirect Discourse........................................................................ 1031

(f) Declarative Clauses (Indirect Assertions)......................................................... 1032

(α)  Ὅτι and the Indicative.................................................................................. 1032

(β) The Infinitive.................................................................................................. 1036

(γ) The Participle.................................................................................................. 1040

(δ) Καὶ ἐγένετο.................................................................................................... 1042

(g) Indirect Questions............................................................................................... 1043

(α) Tense............................................................................................................... 1043

(β) Mode............................................................................................................... 1043

(γ) Interrogative Pronouns and Conjunctions Used............................................. 1044

(δ)  The Article with Indirect Questions.............................................................. 1045

(h) Indirect Command............................................................................................... 1046

(α) Deliberative Question..................................................................................... 1046

(β) The Conjunctions ἵνα and ὅπως.................................................................... 1046

(γ) The Infinitive.................................................................................................. 1046

(i) Mixture................................................................................................................. 1047

(j) The Subordinate Clause....................................................................................... 1048

10. SERIES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES............................................................... 1048

CHAPTER XX:  VERBAL NOUNS (ὈΝΟΜΑΤΑ ΤΟΥ ῬΗΜΑΤΟΣ)........................................ 1050

I. Kinship............................................................................................................................... 1050

II. The Infinitive (ἡ ἀπαρέμφατος ἔγκλισις or ἀπαρέμφατον ῥῆμα).................................... 1051

1. ORIGIN..................................................................................................................... 1051

2. DEVELOPMENT...................................................................................................... 1052

(a)      The Prehistoric Period..................................................................................... 1052

(b) The Earliest Historic Period............................................................................... 1052

(c) The Classic Period from Pindar on..................................................................... 1054

(d) The Κοινή Period................................................................................................ 1054

(e) The Later Period.................................................................................................. 1056

3. SIGNIFICANCE........................................................................................................ 1056

4. SUBSTANTIVAL ASPECTS OF THE INFINITIVE................................................ 1058

(a) Case (Subject or Object Infinitive)..................................................................... 1058

(b) The Articular Infinitive....................................................................................... 1062

(c) Prepositions......................................................................................................... 1068

Ἀντὶ τοῦ................................................................................................................ 1070

Διά......................................................................................................................... 1070

Εἰς τὸ..................................................................................................................... 1071

Ἐν τῷ.................................................................................................................... 1072

Ἕνεκεν τοῦ.......................................................................................................... 1073

Ἐκ του.................................................................................................................. 1073

Ἔως τοῦ............................................................................................................... 1074

Μετὰ τό................................................................................................................. 1074

Πρὸ τοῦ................................................................................................................ 1074

Πρὸς τό................................................................................................................. 1075

(d) The Infinitive with Substantives......................................................................... 1075

(e) The Infinitive with Adjectives............................................................................ 1076

(f) The Infinitive with Verbs.................................................................................... 1077

(g) The Appositional Infinitive................................................................................. 1078

5. VERBAL ASPECTS OF THE INFINITIVE.............................................................. 1079

(a) Voice.................................................................................................................... 1079

(b) Tense................................................................................................................... 1080

(c) Cases with the Infinitive..................................................................................... 1082

(d) The Infinitive in Indirect Discourse.................................................................... 1082

(e) Personal Construction with the Infinitive........................................................... 1085

(f) Epexegetical Infinitive........................................................................................ 1086

(g) Purpose................................................................................................................ 1087

(h) Result................................................................................................................... 1089

(i) Cause.................................................................................................................... 1091

(j) Time..................................................................................................................... 1091

(k) The Absolute Infinitive....................................................................................... 1092

(l) Negatives.............................................................................................................. 1093

(m)   Ἄν with the Infinitive...................................................................................... 1095

III. The Participle (ἡ μετοχή)................................................................................................... 1095

1. THE VERBALS IN –τος AND –τέος....................................................................... 1095

2. HISTORY OF THE PARTICIPLE............................................................................ 1098

(a) The Sanskrit Participle........................................................................................ 1098

(b) Homer's Time...................................................................................................... 1098

(c) The Attic Period.................................................................................................. 1098

(d) The Κοινή........................................................................................................... 1099

(e) Modern Greek...................................................................................................... 1099

3. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PARTICIPLE.................................................................. 1100

(a) Originally an Adjective....................................................................................... 1100

(b) The Addition of the Verbal Functions................................................................ 1101

(c) The Double Aspect of the Participle................................................................... 1101

(d) Relation between Participle and Infinitive......................................................... 1101

(e) Method of Treating the Participle....................................................................... 1103

4. ADJECTIVAL ASPECTS OF THE PARTICIPLE.................................................... 1104

(a) Declension........................................................................................................... 1104

(b) Attributive Participle.......................................................................................... 1105

(α) Anarthrous...................................................................................................... 1105

(β) Articular.......................................................................................................... 1106

(c) Predicate Participle............................................................................................. 1108

(d) The Participle as a Substantive........................................................................... 1108

(e) The Participle as an Adverb................................................................................ 1109

5. VERBAL ASPECTS OF THE PARTICIPLE............................................................ 1110

(a) Voice.................................................................................................................... 1110

(b) Tense................................................................................................................... 1111

(α) Timelessness of the Participle........................................................................ 1111

(β) The Aorist....................................................................................................... 1112

(γ)  The Present.................................................................................................... 1115

(δ) The Perfect...................................................................................................... 1116

(ε) The Future........................................................................................................ 1118

(c) Cases.................................................................................................................... 1119

(d) The Supplementary Participle............................................................................ 1119

(α) The Periphrastic Construction........................................................................ 1119

(β) A Diminution of the Complementary Participle............................................ 1120

(γ) Verbs of Emotion............................................................................................ 1121

(δ) Indirect Discourse........................................................................................... 1122

(e) The Circumstantial Participle or Participial Clauses......................................... 1124

(α) The General Theory........................................................................................ 1124

(β) Varieties of the Circumstantial Participle..................................................... 1125

Time.................................................................................................................. 1125

Manner.............................................................................................................. 1127

Means................................................................................................................ 1128

Cause................................................................................................................. 1128

Purpose.............................................................................................................. 1128

Condition........................................................................................................... 1129

Concession........................................................................................................ 1129

(γ) The Absolute Participle in Subordinate Clauses............................................ 1130

Nominative Absolute........................................................................................ 1130

Accusative Absolute ........................................................................................ 1130

Genitive Absolute............................................................................................. 1131

(f) The Independent Participle in a Sentence........................................................... 1132

(g) Co-ordination between Participles..................................................................... 1135

(h) Οὐ and μή with the Participle............................................................................ 1136

(i) Other Particles with the Participle...................................................................... 1139

CHAPTER XXI:   PARTICLES (ΑΙ  ΠΑΡΑΘΗΚΑΙ)..................................................................... 1142

I. Scope................................................................................................................................. 1142

II. Intensive or Emphatic Particles............................................................................................ 1144

1. LIMITATIONS.......................................................................................................... 1144

2. THE N. T. ILLUSTRATIONS................................................................................... 1147

(a) Γέ......................................................................................................................... 1147

(b) Δή......................................................................................................................... 1149

(c) Εἶ μήν, νή and ναί............................................................................................... 1150

(d) Μέν...................................................................................................................... 1150

(e) Πέρ...................................................................................................................... 1153

(f) Τοί....................................................................................................................... 1154

III. Negative Particles (στερητικαὶ παραθῆκαι)...................................................................... 1155

1. THE OBJECTIVE Οὐ AND ITS COMPOUNDS..................................................... 1155

(a) Origin................................................................................................................... 1155

(b) History................................................................................................................. 1156

(c) Meaning............................................................................................................... 1156

(d) Uses..................................................................................................................... 1156

(i) The Indicative.................................................................................................. 1157

(α) Independent Sentences................................................................................ 1157

(β) Subordinate Clauses................................................................................... 1158

(ii) The Subjunctive.............................................................................................. 1160

(iii) The Optative.................................................................................................. 1161

(iv) The Imperative............................................................................................... 1161

(v) The Infinitive................................................................................................... 1162

(vi) The Participle................................................................................................. 1162

(vii) With Nouns................................................................................................... 1163

(e) Καὶ Οὐ................................................................................................................ 1164

(f) Redundant or Pleonastic Οὐ............................................................................... 1164

(g) Repetition of  Οὐ................................................................................................ 1164

(h) The Intensifying Compound Negative................................................................ 1164

(i) The Disjunctive Negative.................................................................................... 1165

2. THE SUBJECTIVE NEGATIVE Μή AND ITS COMPOUNDS.............................. 1166

(a) The History of Μή............................................................................................... 1166

(b) Significance of Μή............................................................................................. 1167

(c) Uses of Μή.......................................................................................................... 1168

(i) The Indicative.................................................................................................. 1168

(ii) The Subjunctive.............................................................................................. 1169

(iii) The Optative.................................................................................................. 1170

(iv) The Imperative............................................................................................... 1170

(v) The Infinitive................................................................................................... 1170

(vi) The Participle................................................................................................. 1172

(vii) Nouns............................................................................................................ 1172

(d) The Intensifying Compounds with Μή............................................................... 1172

(e) Καὶ μή................................................................................................................. 1173

(f) Disjunctive Use of Μή........................................................................................ 1173

3. COMBINATION OF THE TWO NEGATIVES........................................................ 1173

(a) Μὴ οὐ.................................................................................................................. 1173

(b) Οὐ μή.................................................................................................................. 1174

IV. Interrogative Particles (ἐπερωτηκαὶ παραθῆκαι).............................................................. 1175

1. SINGLE QUESTIONS.............................................................................................. 1175

(a) Direct Questions.................................................................................................. 1175

(i) No Particle at all.............................................................................................. 1175

(ii) The Use of Negative Particles........................................................................ 1175

(iii) Other Particles............................................................................................... 1176

(iv ) Interrogative Pronouns.................................................................................. 1176

(v) Interrogative Conjunctions............................................................................. 1176

(b) Indirect Questions.  Here.................................................................................... 1176

(i) Pronouns........................................................................................................... 1176

(ii) Conjunctions................................................................................................... 1177

2. DOUBLE QUESTIONS............................................................................................ 1177

(i) Direct.................................................................................................................... 1177

(ii) Indirect................................................................................................................ 1177

V. Conjunctions (σύνδεσμοι).................................................................................................. 1177

1. PARATACTIC² CONJUNCTIONS (σύνδεσμοι παρατακτικοί)........................... 1177

(a) Copulative........................................................................................................... 1177

(i) Τέ..................................................................................................................... 1178

(ii) Καί.................................................................................................................. 1179

The Adjunctive Use (‘Also’)............................................................................ 1180

The Ascensive Use (‘Even’)............................................................................. 1181

The Mere Connective (‘And’).......................................................................... 1181

(iii) Δέ................................................................................................................... 1183

(iv)  Ἀλλά............................................................................................................. 1185

(b) Adversative......................................................................................................... 1186

(i) δέ...................................................................................................................... 1186

(ii)  Ἀλλά.............................................................................................................. 1186

(iii) Πλήν.............................................................................................................. 1187

(iv) Μέντοι........................................................................................................... 1188

(v)   Ὅμως........................................................................................................... 1188

(vi) Εἰ μή............................................................................................................... 1188

(c) Disjunctives......................................................................................................... 1188

(i)  Ἤ.................................................................................................................... 1188

(ii) Εἴτε--εἴτε (ἐάντε—ἐάντε)............................................................................... 1189

(iii) Οὔτε--οὔτε  (μήτε—μήτε)............................................................................. 1189

(d) Inferential Conjunctions..................................................................................... 1189

(i)   Ἄρα................................................................................................................ 1189

(ii) Γάρ.................................................................................................................. 1190

(iii) Οὖν................................................................................................................ 1191

2. HYPOTACTIC CONJUNCTIONS (σύνδεσμοι ὑποτακτικοί)............................... 1192

VI.  Interjecitions.................................................................................................................... 1193

CHAPTER XXII:   FIGURES OF SPEECH (ΓΟΡΓΙΕΙΑ  ΣΧΗΜΑΤΑ).......................................... 1194

I. Rhetorical, not Grammatical................................................................................................ 1194

II. Style in the N. T.................................................................................................................. 1194

III. Figures of Idea or Thought (σχήματα διανοίας)................................................................. 1198

V. Figures of Expression (σχήματα λέξεως)............................................................................. 1199

(a) PARALLELS AND CONTRASTS (Parallelismus membrorum)........................... 1199

(b) CONTRASTS IN WORDS...................................................................................... 1200

(c) CONTRACTION AND EXPANSION..................................................................... 1201

(d) METAPHORS AND SIMILAR TROPES............................................................... 1206

ADDITIONAL NOTES................................................................................................................. 1209

1. Καθαρίζω or καθερίζω (p. 183)............................................................................ 1209

2. Prothetic Vowels in the N. T. (p. 206)...................................................................... 1209

3. Elision (p. 208)......................................................................................................... 1210

4. Παρρησία (p. 212)................................................................................................... 1210

5. Assimilation of ἐν μέσῳ (p. 216)............................................................................. 1210

6. Rules for Assimilation of Consonants (p. 216)........................................................ 1210

7. Metathesis (p. 221)................................................................................................... 1210

8. Enclitics and Proclitics (p. 233 f.)............................................................................ 1211

9. Βουστροφηδόν (p. 243)........................................................................................... 1211

10. Perfect of ὁράω (p. 364)........................................................................................ 1211

11. Augment in the Past Perfect (p. 366)..................................................................... 1211

12. List of Important Verbs.......................................................................................... 1212

13. Ablaut...................................................................................................................... 1220

INDEX OF SUBJECTS................................................................................................................. 1223

A.......................................................................................................................................... 1223

B.......................................................................................................................................... 1227

C.......................................................................................................................................... 1227

D.......................................................................................................................................... 1229

F........................................................................................................................................... 1231

G.......................................................................................................................................... 1232

L........................................................................................................................................... 1236

P........................................................................................................................................... 1239

T........................................................................................................................................... 1246

V.......................................................................................................................................... 1247

W......................................................................................................................................... 1248

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS........................................................................................................ 1249

A.......................................................................................................................................... 1249

Ε.......................................................................................................................................... 1258

Η......................................................................................................................................... 1265

Κ.......................................................................................................................................... 1268

Λ.......................................................................................................................................... 1271

N......................................................................................................................................... 1274

Π.......................................................................................................................................... 1278

Σ.......................................................................................................................................... 1283

Τ.......................................................................................................................................... 1285

Υ.......................................................................................................................................... 1287

Φ.......................................................................................................................................... 1288

INDEX OF QUOTATIONS........................................................................................................... 1291

(a) NEW TESTAMENT.............................................................................................................. 1291

Matthew........................................................................................................................ 1291

Luke............................................................................................................................... 1306

Romans.......................................................................................................................... 1333

1 Corinthians................................................................................................................. 1337

2 Corinthians................................................................................................................. 1341

Ephesians...................................................................................................................... 1345

Philippians.................................................................................................................... 1346

Colossians..................................................................................................................... 1347

1 Thessalonians............................................................................................................. 1348

2 Thessalonians............................................................................................................. 1349

1 Timothy...................................................................................................................... 1349

2 Timothy...................................................................................................................... 1350

Philemon....................................................................................................................... 1351

Hebrews......................................................................................................................... 1351

James............................................................................................................................. 1354

1 Peter........................................................................................................................... 1355

2 Peter.................................................................................................................................. 1356

Revelation..................................................................................................................... 1358

(b) OLD TESTAMENT............................................................................................................... 1361

Genesis      Exodus......................................................................................................... 1361

Deuteronomy................................................................................................................. 1362

Joshua............................................................................................................................ 1362

Judges............................................................................................................................ 1362

Ruth............................................................................................................................... 1362

1 Samuel (1 Kings)....................................................................................................... 1362

Nehemiah...................................................................................................................... 1363

Esther............................................................................................................................ 1363

Job................................................................................................................................. 1363

Isaiah............................................................................................................................. 1363

Psalms........................................................................................................................... 1363

Jeremiah........................................................................................................................ 1364

Ezekiel........................................................................................................................... 1364

APOCRYPHA.......................................................................................................................... 1364

1 Esdras......................................................................................................................... 1364

2 Esdras......................................................................................................................... 1364

Baruch........................................................................................................................... 1365

Tobit.............................................................................................................................. 1365

Judith............................................................................................................................. 1365

4 Maccabees.................................................................................................................. 1365

1 Maccabees.................................................................................................................. 1365

2 Maccabees.................................................................................................................. 1365

TESTAMENT OF THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS............................................................................... 1365

Reuben........................................................................................................................... 1365

Levi............................................................................................................................... 1365

Judah............................................................................................................................. 1365

(c) INSCRIPTIONS................................................................................................................... 1366

(d) PAPYRI AND OSTRACA....................................................................................................... 1367

(e) GREEK LITERATURE........................................................................................................... 1372

(f) LATIN............................................................................................................................. 1376

ADDENDA TO THE SECOND EDITION..................................................................................... 1377

ADDENDA TO THE THIRD EDITION......................................................................................... 1385

INDEX TO ADDENDA TO SECOND AND.................................................................................. 1433

ΤHIRD EDITIONS....................................................................................................................... 1433

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS IN THE ADDENDA........................................................................ 1439

INDEX OF QUOTATIONS IN THE ADDENDA........................................................................... 1443

(a) NEW TESTAMENT.............................................................................................................. 1443

Matthew........................................................................................................................ 1443

Mark.............................................................................................................................. 1444

Luke............................................................................................................................... 1445

Acts............................................................................................................................... 1447

Romans.......................................................................................................................... 1448

2 Corinthians................................................................................................................. 1449

Galatians....................................................................................................................... 1449

2 Thessalonians............................................................................................................. 1450

1 Timothy...................................................................................................................... 1450

2 Timothy...................................................................................................................... 1450

Titus.............................................................................................................................. 1450

(b) OLD TESTAMENT AND APOCRYPHA..................................................................................... 1451

Genesis.......................................................................................................................... 1451

Exodus........................................................................................................................... 1451

Leviticus........................................................................................................................ 1451

Numbers........................................................................................................................ 1451

Deuteronomy................................................................................................................. 1451

Nehemiah...................................................................................................................... 1452

Esther............................................................................................................................ 1452

Psalms........................................................................................................................... 1452

Proverbs........................................................................................................................ 1452

Isaiah............................................................................................................................. 1452

Jeremiah........................................................................................................................ 1452

Ezekiel........................................................................................................................... 1452

(d) INDEX OF PAPYRI IN THE ADDENDA.................................................................................... 1452

(e) INDEX OF GREEK LITERATURE IN THE ADDENDA.................................................................. 1453

i. CLASSICAL.............................................................................................................. 1453

ii. KOINH...................................................................................................................... 1454

 

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PART I:   INTRODUCTION

 

Page 2. This page intentionally left blank.

CHAPTER I:  NEW MATERIAL

 

          The Ideal Grammar?

           Perhaps the ideal grammar of the New

Testament Greek may never be written. It is a supremely diffi-

cult task to interpret accurately the forms of human speech, for

they have life and change with the years. But few themes have

possessed greater charm for the best furnished scholars of the

world than the study of language.¹

          The language of the N. T. has a special interest by reason of

the message that it bears. Every word and phrase calls for

minute investigation where so much is at stake. It is the task

and the duty of the N. T. student to apply the results of linguistic

research to the Greek of the N. T. But, strange to say, this has

not been adequately done.²

          New Testament study has made remarkable progress in the

sphere of criticism, history and interpretation, but has lagged

behind in this department. A brief survey of the literary history

of the subject shows it.

I.                The Pre-Winer Period.

          It was Winer who in 1822 made a

new epoch in N. T. grammatical study by his Neutestamentliches

Sprachidiom. It is hardly possible for the student of the present

day to enter into sympathy with the inanities and sinuosities

that characterized the previous treatises on the N. T. idiom.

Not alone in the controversy between the Purists and Hebraists

was this true, but writers like Storr, by a secret system of quid

pro quo, cut the Gordian knot of grammatical difficulty by ex-

plaining one term as used for another, one preposition for an-

other, one case for another, etc. As a university tutor Winer

 

            ¹ See J. Classen, De Gr. Graecae Primordiis, 1829, p. 1, who says: "Inter

humani ingenii inventa, quae diuturna consuetudine quasi naturae iura adepta

cunt, nullum fere magis invaluit et pervulgatum est, quam grammaticae ratio

et usus."

            ² "And despite the enormous advance since the days of Winer toward a

rational and unitary conception of the N. T. language, we still labour to-day

under the remains of the old conceptions." Samuel Dickey, Prince. Theol.

Rev., Oct., 1903, "New Points of View."

 

                                              3

4        A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

combated "this absurd system of interpretation," and not

without success in spite of receiving some sneers. He had the

temerity to insist on this order of interpretation: grammatical,

historical, theological. He adhered to his task and lived to see

"an enlightened philology, as deduced and taught by Herrmann

and his school," triumph over the previous "unbridled license."¹

               II. The Service of Winer.

(a) WINER'S INCONSISTENCIES.

          It must be said, however, that

great as was the service of Winer to this science, he did not at all

points carry out consistently his own principles, for he often ex-

plained one tense as used for another. He was not able to rise

entirely above the point of view of his time nor to make persist-

ent application of the philosophical grammar. It is to be borne

in mind also that the great science of comparative philology had

not revolutionized linguistic study when Winer first wrote. In a

true sense he was a pathfinder.

          (b) WINER EPOCH-MAKING.

          --WINER IN ENGLISH. But none the

less his work has been the epoch-making one for N. T. study.

After his death Dr. Gottlieb Lunemann revised and improved the

Neutestamentliches Sprachidiom. Translations of Winer's Gram-

matik into English were first made by Prof. Masson of Edin-

burgh, then by Prof. Thayer of Harvard (revision of Masson),

and finally by Prof. W. F. Moulton of Cambridge, who added

excellent footnotes, especially concerning points in modern Greek.

The various editions of Winer-Thayer and Winer-Moulton have

served nearly two generations of English and American scholars.

(b) SCHMIEDEL.

          But now at last Prof. Schmiedel of Zurich is

thoroughly revising Winer's Grammatik, but it is proceeding

slowly and does not radically change Winer's method, though

use is made of much of the modern knowledge.² Deissmann,³

indeed, expresses disappointment in this regard concerning

Schmiedel's work as being far "too much Winer and too little

Schmiedel." But Deissmann concedes that Schmiedel's work

"marks a characteristic and decisive turning-point in N. T.

philology."

 

            ¹ See Pref. to the sixth and last ed. by Winer himself as translated by Dr.

J. H. Thayer in the seventh and enlarged ed. of 1869.

            ² Winer's Gr. des neutest. Sprachid. 8. Aufl. neu bearbeitet von Dr. Paul

Wilhelm Schmiedel, 1894—.

            ³ Die sprachl. Erforsch. der griech. Bibel, 1898, p. 20. He adds, "Der

alte Winer war seiner Zeit ein Protest des philologischen Gewissens gegen

die Willkur eines anmassenden Empiricismus." Cf. also Exp., Jan., 1908,

p. 63.

NEW MATERIAL  5

 

(c)  BUTTMANN.

          Buttmann's Grammatik des neutestamentlichen

Sprachgebrauchs had appeared in 1859 and was translated by

Thayer as Buttmann's Grammar of N.T. Greek (1873), an able work.

(d) BLASS.

          It is not till the Grammatik des neutestamentlichen

Griechisch by Prof. Blass in 1896 that any other adequate gram-

mar appears in this field. And Blass departs a little from tradi-

tional methods and points of view. He represents a transition

towards a new era. The translation by H. St. John Thackeray

has been of good service in the English-speaking world.¹

II.              The Modern Period.

          It is just in the last decade that

it  has become possible to make a real advance in New Testa-

ment grammatical study. The discovery and investigation that

have characterized every department of knowledge have borne

rich fruit here also.

(a) DEISSMANN.

          Deissmann² sees rightly the immensity of the

task imposed upon the N. T. grammarian by the very richness of

the new discoveries. He likewise properly condemns the too fre-

quent isolation of the N. T. Greek from the so-called "profane

Greek."³ Deissmann has justly pointed out that the terms "pro-

fane" and "biblical" do not stand in linguistic contrast, but

rather "classical" and "biblical." Even here he insists on the

practical identity of biblical with the contemporary later Greek

of the popular style.⁴

          It was in 1895 that Deissmann published his Bibelstudien, and

his Neue Bibelstudien followed in 1897. The new era has now

fairly begun. In 1901 the English translation of both volumes

by Grieve appeared as Bible Studies. In 1907 came the Philol-

 

            ¹ First ed. 1898, second ed. 1905, as Blass' Gr. of N. T. Gk. A revision

of the work of Blass (the 4th German edition) by Dr. A. Debrunner has ap-

peared as these pages are going through the press.

            ² Die sprachl. Erforsch. der griech. Bibel, 1898, p. 5: "Durch neue Erkennt-

nisse befruchtet steht die griechische Philologie gegenwartig im Zeichen einer

vielverheissenden Renaissance, die fordert von der sprachliehen Erforschung

der griechischen Bibel, dass sie in engste, Fuhlung trete mit der historischen

Erforschung der griechischen Sprache."

            ³ Ib., p. 7. Like, for instance, Zerschwitz, Profangrac. und bibl. Sprachg.,

1859.

            ⁴ Die Spr. der griech. Bibel, Theol. 1898, pp. 463-472. He aptly

says: "Nicht die Profangracitat ist der sprachgeschichtliche Gegensatz zur

‘biblischen,’ sondern das classische Griechisch. Die neueren Funde zur Ge-

sehrehte der griechischen Sprache zeigen, dass die Eigentumlichkeiten des

‘biblischen’ Formen- und Wortschatzes (bei den original-griechischen Schrif-

ten auch der Syntax) im grossen und ganzen Eigentumlichkeiten des spateren

und zwar zumeist des unliterarischen Griechisch uberhaupt sind."

6       A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

ogy of the Bible. His Licht vom Osten (1908) was his next most

important work (Light from the Ancient East, 1910, translated

by Strachan). See Bibliography for full list of his books. The

contribution of Deissmann is largely in the field of lexicography.

(b) THUMB.

          It was in 1901 that A. Thumb published his great

book on the κοινή, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hel-

lenismus, which has done so much to give the true picture of the

κοινή. He had already in 1895 produced his Handbuch der neu-

griechischen Volkssprache. In 1912 the second enlarged edition

was issued in English by S. Angus, as Handbook of Modern

Greek Vernacular. This hook at once took front place for the

study of the modern Greek by English students. It is the only

book in English that confines itself to the vernacular.

(c)  MOULTON.

          In 1895, J. H. Moulton, son of W. F. Moulton,

the translator of Winer, produced his Introduction to N. T.

Greek, in a noble linguistic succession. In 1901 he began to pub-

lish in The Classical Review and in The Expositor, "Grammatical

Notes from the Papyri," which attracted instant attention by

their freshness and pertinency. In 1906 appeared his now famous

Prolegomena, vol. I, of A Grammar of N. T. Greek, which

reached the third edition by 1908. With great ability Moulton

took the cue from Deissmann and used the papyri for grammatical

purposes. He demonstrated that the Greek of the N. T. is in

the main just the vernacular κοινή of the papyri. In 1911 the

Prolegomena appeared in German as Einleitung in die Sprache des

Neuen Testaments.

(d) OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS.

          It is not possible to mention here

all the names of the workers in the field of N. T. grammar (see

Bibliography). The old standpoint is still found in the books of

Hatch, Essays in Biblical Greek (1889); Hoole, The Classical Ele-

ment in the N. T. (1888); Simcox, The Language of the N. T.

(1890); Schaff, A Companion to the Greek Testament and English

Version (1889); Viteau, Ètude sur le grec du N. T. — Le Verbe

(1893); Le Sujet (1896). The same thing is true of Abbott's Jo-

hannine Vocabulary (1905) and Johannine Grammar (1906); Bur-

ton's Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the N. T. Greek (1888,

third ed. 1909) is yet a genuine contribution. In Kennedy's

Sources of N. T. Greek (1895) we see a distinct transition toward

the new era of N. T. grammar. In 1911 Radermacher's Neu-

testamentliche Grammatik is in fact more a grammar of the κοινή  

than of the N. T., as it is designed to be an Einleitung. The au-

thor's Short Grammar of the Greek N. T. (1908) gives the new

                                      NEW MATERIAL                                  7

 

knowledge in a succinct form. The Italian translation (1910) by

Bonaccorsi has additional notes by the translator. Stocks (1911)

made numerous additions to the Laut- und Formenlehre of the

German edition. Grosheide in the Dutch translation (1912) has

made a revision of the whole book. The French edition (1911)

by Montet is mainly just a translation. The fourth enlarged edi-

tion in English appeared in 1916. Many special treatises of

great value have appeared (see Bibliography), by men like Angus,

Buttmann, Heinrici, Thieme, Vogel, Votaw, J. Weiss, Wellhausen.

(e)  RICHNESS OF MATERIAL.

          Now indeed it is the extent of

the material demanding examination that causes embarrassment.

And only thirty years ago K. Krumbacher¹ lamented that it was

not possible to give "a comprehensive presentation of the Greek

language" because of the many points on which work must be

done beforehand. But we have come far in the meantime. The

task is now possible, though gigantic and well-nigh insurmount-

able. But it is not for us moderns to boast because of the material

that has come to our hand. We need first to use it. Dieterich²

has well said that the general truth that progress is from error to

truth "finds its confirmation also in the history of the develop-

ment that the Greek language has received in the last two thou-

sand years." By the induction of a wider range of facts we can

eliminate errors arising from false generalizations. But this is a

slow process that calls for patience. Dionysius Thrax,³ one of the

Alexandrian fathers of the old Greek grammar (circa 100 B.C.),

said:  Γραμματική ἐστιν ἐμπειρία τῶν παρὰ ποιηταῖς τε καὶ συγγγρα-

φεῦσιν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ λεγομένων. Andrew Lang⁴ indeed is a dis-

ciple of Dionysius Thrax in one respect, for he contends that

students are taught too much grammar and too little language.

They know the grammars and not the tongue. A bare outline

can be given of the sources of the new material for such gram-

matical study.

 

            ¹ Beitr. zu einer Geseh. der griech. Spr., Kuhn's Zeits. far vergl. Sprach-

forsch., 1882, p. 484: "Fine zusammenhangende Darstellung des Entwick-

lungsganges der griechischen Sprache ist gegenwartig nicht moglich. Auf

allzu vielen Punkten eines langen und viel verschlungenen Weges gebricht

es an den Vorarbeiten, welche fur ein solches Unternehmen unerlasslich Sind."

            ² Unters. zur Gesch. der griech. Spr. von der hell. Zeit bis zum 10. Jahrh.

n. Chr., 1898, p. x.

            ³ As quoted in Bekker, Anec. Graeca (1816), vol. II, p. 629. Dionysius

Thrax mentions six μέρη in grammar: ἀνάγνωσις, ἐξήγησις, γλωσσῶν τε καὶ ἱστο-

ριῶν πρόχειρος ὑπόδοσις, ἐτυμολογίας εὕρησις, ἀναλογίας ἐκλογισμός, κρίσις ποι-

ημάτων. A generous allowance truly!    ⁴ Morning Post, Lond., May 5,1905.

8      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

               IV. The New Grammatical Equipment for N. T. Study.

(a) COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.

          We must consider the great ad-

vance in comparative philology. The next chapter will deal

somewhat at length with various phases of the historical method

of linguistic study.

1.     The Linguistic Revolution.

          A revolution has been wrought

in the study of language. It must be confessed that grammatical

investigation has not always been conducted on the inductive

principle nor according to the historical method. Too often the

rule has been drawn from a limited range of facts. What is

afterwards found to conflict with a rule is called an "exception."

Soon the exceptions equal or surpass the rule. Unfortunately the

ancients did not have the benefit of our distinctions of "regular"

and "irregular." Metaphysical speculation with lofty superi-

ority to the facts is sometimes charged upon grammarians.¹

"Grammar and logic do not coincide."² Comparative grammar

is merely the historical method applied to several languages to

gether instead of only one.³

          2. A Sketch of Greek Grammatical History. The Greek has

had its own history, but it is related to the history of kindred

tongues. "From the days of Plato's Kratylus downward . . . the

Greek disputed as to whether language originated by convention

(νόμῳ) or by nature (φύσει)."⁴  Indeed formal Greek grammar

was the comparison with the Latin and began "with Dionysius  

Thrax, who utilized the philological lucubrations of Aristotle and

the Alexandrian critics for the sake of teaching Greek to the sons

of the aristocratic contemporaries of Pompey at Rome."⁵ His

Greek grammar is still in existence in Bekker's Anecdota,⁶ and is

the cause of much grotesque etymology since.⁷

          This period of grammatical activity came after the great crea-

tive period of Greek literature was over, and in Alexandria, not

 

            ¹ So Dr. John H. Kerr, sometime Prof. of N. T. in the Pac. Theol. Sem.

in conversation with me.     ² Paul, Prin. of the Hist. of Lang., 1888, p. 18.

            ³ Ib., pp. 1 ff. So Oertel, Lect. on the Study of Lang., 1901, p. 42,

"Comparative grammar in Schleicher's sense is in its essence nothing but

historical grammar by the comparative method."

            ⁴ Sayce, Prin. of Comp. Philol., 1875, p. 259 f.

            ⁵ Ib., p. 261.                  ⁶ Op. cit., pp. 629-643.

            ⁷ See Sayce, Intr. to the Sci. of Lang., 1880, vol. I, p. 19 f.; Dionysius

Thrax's τέχνη γραμματική was developed into a system by Apollonius Dysco-

lus (ii/A.D.) and his son Herodian. Dionysius Thrax was born B.C. 166. Dys-

colus wrote a systematic Gk. Syntax of accentuation in 20 books (known to

us only in epitome) about 200 A.D.

                                  NEW MATERIAL                                          9

 

in Athens.¹ Rhetoric was scientifically developed by Aristotle

long before there was a scientific syntax. Aristotle perfected log-

ical analysis of style before there was historical grammar.² With

Aristotle ὁ γραμματικός was one that busied himself with the let-

ters (γράμματα). He was not ἀγράμματος; ἡ γραμματική then had

to do with the letters and was exegetical.³ Plato does not treat

grammar, though the substantive and the adjective are distin-

guished, but only dialectics, metaphysics, logic.⁴ The Stoic gram-

marians, who succeeded Plato and Aristotle, treated language from

the logical standpoint and accented its psychological side.⁵ So

the Alexandrian grammarians made γραμματική more like κριτική.

They got hold of the right idea, though they did not attain the

true historical method.⁶

          Comparative grammar was not wholly unknown indeed to the

ancients, for the Roman grammarians since Varro made a com-

parison between Greek and Latin words.⁷ The Roman writers

on grammar defined it as the "scientia recte loquendi et scri-

bendi,"⁸ and hence came nearer to the truth than did the Alex-

andrian writers with their Stoic philosophy and exegesis. It has

indeed been a hard struggle to reach the light in grammar.⁹ But

Roger Bacon in this "blooming time" saw that it was necessary

for the knowledge of both Greek and Latin to compare them.¹⁰

And Bernhardy in 1829 saw that there was needed a grammatico-

historical discussion of syntax because of the "distrust of the

union of philosophy with grammar."¹¹ We needed "the view-

 

            ¹ See Jebb in Whibley's Comp. to Gk. Stud., 1905, p. 147 f.

            ² See Steinthal, Gesch. der Sprachw. bei den Griech. und Rom., 2. TI.,

1891, p. 179.

            ³ F. Hoffmann, Uber die Entwickelung des Begriffs der Gr. bei den Alten,

1891, p. 1.

            ⁴ Ib., p. 144. The early Gk. grammarians were "ohne richtiges historisches

Bewusstsein" (Steinthal, Gesch. der Sprachw. etc., 1. Tl., 1863, p. 39). Even

in Plato's Kratylus we do not see "das Gauze in seiner Ganzheit" (p. 40).

            ⁵ Ib., p. 277 f. For a good discussion of Dion. Thr. see Jannaris, Hist.

Gk. Gr., p. 34 f.

            ⁶ See Kretschmer, Einl. in die Gesch. der griech. Spr., 1896, p. 1.

            ⁷ See Kretschmer, op. cit., p. 4.

            ⁸  F. Blass, Hermen. und Krit., 1892, p. 157 f.

Steinthal, Gesch. etc., 2. Tl., 1891, p. 1, calls this time of struggle "ihre

Blutezeit."

            ¹⁰ Roger Bacon, Oxford Gk. Gr., edited by Nolan and Hirsch, 1902, p. 27:

"Et in hac comparatione Grammaticae Graecae ad Latinam non solum est

necessitas propter intelligendam Grammaticam Graecam, sed omnino necqs-

sarium est ad intelligentiam Latinae Grammaticae."

            ¹¹ Wissenseh. Synt, der griech. Spr., 1829, pp. 7, 12.

10        A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

point of the historical Syntax." Humboldt is quoted by Oertel¹

as saying: "Linguistic science, as I understand it, must be based

upon facts alone, and this collection must be neither one-sided

nor incomplete." So Bopp conceived also: "A grammar in the

higher scientific sense of the word must be both history and

natural science." This is not an unreasonable demand, for it is

made of every other department of science.²

          3. The Discovery of Sanskrit. It is a transcendent fact which

has revolutionized grammatical research. The discovery of San-

skrit by Sir William Jones is what did it. In 1786 he wrote thus³:

"The Sanskrit language, whatever may be its antiquity, is of

wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious

than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either; yet

bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of

verbs and the forms of grammar, than could have been produced

by accident; so strong that no philologer could examine all the

three without believing them to have sprung from some common

source which no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though

not so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic,

though blended with a different idiom, had the same origin with

the Sanskrit." He saw then the significance of his own discovery,

though not all of it, for the Teutonic tongues, the Lithuanian

and Slav group of languages, the Iranian, Italic, Armenian and

Albanian belong to the same Aryan, Indo-Germanic or Indo-

European family as it is variously called.

          4. From Bopp to Brugmann. But Bopp⁴ is the real founder of

comparative philology. Before Bopp's day "in all grammars the

mass of ‘irregular’ words was at least as great as that of the

‘regular’ ones, and a rule without exception actually excited

suspicion."⁵ Pott's great work laid the foundation of scientific

phonetics.⁶ Other great names in this new science are W. von

 

            ¹ Lect. on the Study of Lang., 1901, p. 47.

            ² See C. Herrmann, Philos. Gr., 1858, p. 422: "Die Natur der philoso-

phischen Grammatik war von Anfang an bestimmt worden als die eine

Grenzwissenschaft zwischen Philosophie and Philologie." But it is a more

objective task now.

            ³ Cf. Benfey, Gesch. der Sprachw., p. 348. "This brilliant discovery, de-

clared in 1786, practically lies at the root of all linguistic science." J. H.

Moulton, Sci. of Lang., 1903, p. 4.

            ⁴ See his Vergl. Gr., 1857. He began publication on the subject in

1816.

            ⁵ Delbruck, Intr. to the Study of Lang., 1882, p. 25.

            ⁶ Etym. Forsch. auf dem Gebiet der indoger. Spr., 1833-1830.

                                  NEW MATERIAL                                  11

 

Humboldt,¹ Jacob Grimm,² Schlegel,³ Schleicher,⁴ Max Muller,⁵

Curtius,⁶ Verner,⁷ Whitney,⁸ L. Meyer.⁹

          But in recent years two men, K. Brugmann and B. Delbruck,

have organized the previous knowledge into a great monumental

work, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogerma-

nischen Sprachen.¹⁰ This achievement is as yet the high-water-

mark in comparative grammar. Brugmann has issued a briefer

and cheaper edition giving the main results.¹¹ Delbruck has also a

brief treatise on Greek syntax in the light of comparative gram-

mar,¹² while Brugmann has applied comparative philology to the

Laut- and Formenlehre of Greek grammar.¹³ In the Grundriss

Brugmann has Bde. I, II, while Delbruck treats syntax in Bde.

III-V. In the new edition Brugmann has also that part of the

syntax which is treated in Vol. III and IV of the first edi-

tion. The best discussion of comparative grammar for begin-

ners is the second edition of P. Giles's Manual.¹⁴ Hatzidakis

successfully undertakes to apply comparative grammar to the

modern Greek.¹⁵ Riemann and Goelzer have made an exhaustive

comparison of the Greek and Latin languages.¹⁶ There are, in-

deed, many interesting discussions of the history and principles

growing out of all this linguistic development, such as the works

 

            ¹ Always mentioned by Bopp with reverence.

            ² Deutsche Gr., 1822. Author of Grimm's law of the interchange of let-

ters. Next to Bopp in influence.

            ³ Indische Bibl.

            ⁴ Vergl. Gr. der indoger. Spr., 1876, marks the next great advance.

            ⁵ Lect. on the Sci. of Lang., 1866. He did much to popularize this study.

            ⁶ His most enduring work is his Prin. of Gk. Etym., vols. I, II, fifth ed.,

1886.

            ⁷ The discovery of Verner's law, a variation from Grimm's law, according

to which  p, t and k, pass into b, d and g, instead of f, th and h when not im-

mediately followed by the word-accent.

            ⁸ Life and Growth of Lang., 1875; Sans. Gr., 1892, etc.

            ⁹ Vergl. Gr., 1865.

            ¹⁰ Bd. I-V, 1st ed. 1886-1900; 2d ed. 1897—; cf. also Giles-Hertel, Vergl.

Gr., 1896.

            ¹¹ Kurze vergl. Gr., 1902-1904.

            ¹² Die Grundl. der griech. Synt., 1879.

            ¹³ Griech. Gr., 1900, 3. Aufl.; 4. Aufl., 1913, by Thumb. See also G. Meyer,

Griech. Gr., 3. verm. Aufl., 1896.

            ¹⁴ A Short Man. of Comp. Philol., 1901.

            ¹⁵ Einl. in die neugr. Gr., 1892.

            ¹⁶ Gr. comparee du Grec et du Lat.: Syntaxe, 1897; Phonetique et Etude

de Formes, 1901. Cf. also King and Cookson's Prin. of Sound and Inflexion

as illustrated in the Gk. and Lat. Lang., 1888.

12     A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

of Jolly,¹ Delbruck,² Sweet,³ Paul,⁴ Oertel,⁵ Moulton,⁶ Whit-

ney,⁷ Max Muller,⁸ Sayce.⁹  It is impossible to write a grammar

of the Greek N. T. without taking into consideration this new

conception of language. No language lives to itself, and least of

all the Greek of the N. T. in the heart of the world-empire.¹⁰  It

is not necessary to say that until recently use of this science had

not been made by N. T. grammars.¹¹

          (b) ADVANCE IN GENERAL GREEK GRAMMAR. There has been

great advance in the study of general Greek grammar. The

foundations laid by Crosby and Ktihner, Kruger, Curtius, Butt-

mann, Madvig, Jelf and others have been well built upon by

Hadley, Goodwin, Gildersleeve, Gerth, Blass, Brugmann, G.

Meyer, Schanz, Hirt, Jannaris, etc. To the classical student this

catalogue of names¹² is full of significance. The work of Kuhner

has been thoroughly revised and improved in four massive vol-

umcs by Blass¹³ and Gerth,¹⁴ furnishing a magnificent apparatus

for the advanced student. Hirt's handbook¹⁵ gives the modern

knowledge in briefer form, a compendium of comparative gram-

mar, while G. Meyer¹⁶ and Brugmann¹⁷ are professedly on the

 

            ¹ Schulgr. und Sprachw., 1874.

            ² Intr. to the Study of Lang., 1882; 5th Germ. ed. 1908. Uber die

Resultate der vergl. Synt., 1872. Cf. Wheeler, The Whence and Whither of

the Mod. Sci. of Lang., 1905; Henry, Précis de gr. du grec et du latin, 5th

ed., 1894.                                 ³ The Hist. of Lang., 1899.

            ⁴ Prin. of the Hist. of Lang., 1888; 4th Germ. ed. 1909.

            ⁵ Lect. on the Study of Lang., 1901.      ⁶ The Sci. of Lang., 1903.

            ⁷ Lang. and the Study of Lang., 1867.

            ⁸ Three Lect. on the Sci. of Lang., 1891.                 ⁹ Prin. of Comp. Philol., 1875.

            ¹⁰ By "die historische Sprachforschung" the Gk. tongue is shown to be a

member of the Indo-Germanic family; thus is gained "der sprachgeschicht-

liche Gesichtspunkt," and then is gained " ein wesentlich richtiges Verstand-

nis . . . fur den Entwicklungsgang der Sprache." Brugmann, Griech. Gr.,

1885, p. 4. Cf. p. 3 in third ed., 1901.

            ¹¹ See J. H. Moulton's Prol. to the N. T. Gk. Gr., 1906, and A. T. Robert-

son's N. T. Syll., 1900, and Short Gr. of the Gk. N. T., 1908.

            ¹² The late G. N. Hatzidakis contemplated a thesaurus of the Gk. language,.

but his death cut it short.

            ¹³ Ausfuhrl. Gr. der griech. Spr. von Dr. Raphael Kuhner, 1. Tl.: Elemen-,

tar- und Formenlehre, Bd. I, II. Besorgt von Dr. Friedrich Blass, 1890, 1892.

            ¹⁴ Ib., 2. Tl. Satzlehre, Bd. I, II. Besorgt von Dr. Bernhard Gerth, 1898,

1904.

            ¹⁵ Handb. der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre, 1902, 1. Aufl.; 2. Aufl., 1912.

            ¹⁶ Griech. Gr., 3. Aufl., 1896.

            ¹⁷ Ib., 1900; 4. Aufl., 1913, by Thumb; 3d ed. quoted in this book. A

now (1912) Wright has given in English a Comp. Gr. of the Gk. Lang.

                                  NEW MATERIAL                                 13

 

basis of comparative philology. Jannaris^l is the first fairly suc-

cessful attempt to present in one volume the survey of the prog-

ress of the language as a whole. Schanz² makes a much more

ambitious undertaking and endeavours in a large number of mono-

graphs to furnish material for a future historical grammar. Gil-

dersleeve³ has issued only two volumes of his work, while the

grammars of Hadley-Allen and Goodwin are too well known to

call for remark. New grammars, like F. E. Thompson's (1907,

new ed.) and Simonson's (2 vols., 1903, 1908), continue to appear.

          (c) CRITICAL EDITIONS OF GREEK AUTHORS. The Greek authors

in general have received minute and exhaustive investigation. The

modern editions of Greek writers are well-nigh ideal. Careful

and critical historical notes give the student all needed, sometimes

too much, aid for the illumination of the text. The thing most

lacking is the reading of the authors and, one may add, the study

of the modern Greek. Butcher⁴ well says "Greek literature is

the one entirely original literature of Europe." Homer, Aris-

totle, Plato, not to say AEschylus, Sophocles and Euripides are

still the modern masters of the intellect. Translations are better

than nothing, but can never equal the original. The Greek lan-

guage remains the most perfect organ of human speech and

largely because "they were talkers, whereas we are readers."⁵

They studied diligently how to talk.⁶

          (d) WORKS ON INDIVIDUAL WRITERS. In nothing has the ten-

dency to specialize been carried further than in Greek grammatical

research. The language of Homer, Thucydides, Herodotus, the

tragic poets, the comic writers, have all called for minute investi-

 

            ¹ An Hist. Gk. Gr., chiefly of the Att. Dial., 1897. Cf. also Wackernagel,

Die griech. Spr. (pp. 291-318), Tl. I, Abt. VIII, Kultur der Gegenw.

            2 Beitr. zur histor. Synt. der griech. Spr., Tl. I. Cf. also Hubner, Grundr.

zur Vorlesung tiber die griech. Synt., 1883. A good bibliography. Krum-

bacher, Beitr. zu einer Gesch. der griech. Spr., Kuhn's Zeitschr. etc., 1885,

pp. 481-545.

            ³ Synt. of Class. Gk., 1900, 1911.

            ⁴ Harv. Lect. on Gk. Subj., 1904, p. 129. See also Butcher, Some Aspects

of the Gk. Genius, 1893, p. 2: "Greece, first smitten with the passion for

truth, had the courage to put faith in reason, and, in following its guidance,

to take no account of consequences." So p. 1: "To see things as they really

are, to discern their meanings and adjust their relations was with them an

instinct and a passion."                                                 ⁵ Ib.,  p. 203.

            ⁶ See Bernhardy, Griech. Lit., TI. I, II, 1856; Christ, Gesch. der griech.

Lit. bis auf die Zeit Justinians, 4. revid. Aufl., 1905; 5. Aufl., 1908 ff. Par-

nell, Gk. Lyric Poetry, 1891, etc. A. Croiset and M. Croiset, An Abr. Hist.

of Gk. Lit., transl. by Heffelbower, 1904.

14      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

gation,¹ and those of interest to N. T. students are the mono-

graphs on Polybius, Josephus, Plutarch, etc. The concordances

of Plato, Aristotle, etc., are valuable. The Apostolic Fathers,

Greek Christian Apologists and the Apocryphal writings illus-

trate the tendencies of N. T. speech. Cf. Reinhold, De Graec.

Patr. Apost. (1898). The universities of America and Europe

which give the Ph.D. degree have produced a great number of

monographs on minute points like the use of the preposition in

Herodotus, etc. These all supply data of value and many of

them have been used in this grammar. Dr. Mahaffy,² indeed, is

impatient of too much specialism, and sometimes in linguistic

study the specialist has missed the larger and true conception of

the whole.

          (e) THE GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. The Greek inscriptions speak

with the voice of authority concerning various epochs of the lan-

guage. Once we had to depend entirely on books for our knowl-

edge of the Greek tongue. There is still much obscurity, but it

is no longer possible to think of Homer as the father of Greek

nor to consider 1000 B.C. as the beginning of Greek culture. The

two chief names in epigraphical studies are those of August

Boeckh (Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum) and Theodor Momm-

sen (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum). For a careful review of

"the Nature of the New Texts" now at our service in the in-

scriptions see Deissmann, Light, etc., pp. 10-20. See W. H. P.

Hatch's article (Jour. of Bibl. Lit., 1908, pp. 134-146, Part 2)

on "Some Illustrations of N. T. Usage from Greek Inscriptions

of Asia Minor." Cf. also Thieme, Die Inschriften von Magnesia

am Maander and das Neue Test. (1906), and Rouffiac, Recherches

sur les Caracteres du Grec dans le N. T. d'apres les Inscriptions

de Priene (1911). Deissmann, op. cit., p. 18, thinks that ἀγά[πη]ν

is rightly restored in a pagan inscription in Pisidia of the imperial

period. For the Christian inscriptions see Deissmann, op. cit.,

p. 19. Schliemann³  has not only restored the story of Troy to

the reader of the historic past, but he has revealed a great civi-

 

            ¹ Cf., for instance, Die Spr. des Plut. etc., T1. I, II, 1895, 1896; Krebs, Die

Prapositionen bei Polybius, 1881; Goetzeler, Einfl. des Dion. Hal. auf die

Sprachgesch. etc., 1891; Schmidt, De Flavii Josephi eloc. observ. crit., 1894;

Kaelker, Quest. de Eloc. Polyb. etc.

            ² "A herd of specialists is rising up, each master of his own subject, but

absolutely ignorant and careless of all that is going on around him in kindred

studies." Survey of Gk. Civilization, 1897, p. 3.

            ³ Mycenae and Tiryns, 1878.

                                 NEW MATERIAL                               15

 

lization at Mycenae.¹ Homer stands at the close of a long ante-

cedent history of linguistic progress, and once again scholars are

admitting the date 850 or even 1000 B.C. for his poems as well as

their essential unity, thus abandoning Wolff's hypothesis.² They

have been driven to this by the abundant linguistic testimony

from the inscriptions from many parts of Greece. So vast is this

material that numerous grammatical discussions have been made

concerning the inscriptions, as those by Roehl,³ Kretschmer,⁴

Lautensach,⁵ Rang,⁶ Meisterhans,⁷ Schweizer,⁸ Viteau,⁹ Wagner,¹⁰

Nachmanson,¹¹ etc.

          These inscriptions are not sporadic nor local, but are found in

Egypt, in Crete, in Asia Minor, the various isles of the sea,¹² in

Italy, in Greece, in Macedonia, etc. Indeed Apostolides¹³ seems

to show that the Greeks were in Egypt long before Alexander

the Great founded Alexandria. The discoveries of Dr. A. J.

 

            ¹ See also Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age, 1897.

            ² Ridgeway (Early Age of Greece, vol. I, 1901, p. 635) says that the methods

applied to dissection of the Iliad and the Odyssey would pick to pieces the

Paradise Lost and The Antiquary. "The linguistic attack upon their age

may be said to have at last definitely failed." (T. W. Allen, Cl. Rev., May,

1906, p. 193.) Lang, Homer and Hiss Age (1906), advocates strongly the

unity of the Homeric poems.                             ³ Inscr. Graecae Antiq., 1882.

            ⁴ Die griech. Vaseninschr. und ihre Spr., 1894.

            ⁵ Verbalfl. der att. Inschr., 1887.                        ⁶ Antiquites hellen., 1842.

            ⁷ Gr. der att. Inschr., 3. Aufl. von E. Schwyzer, 1900.

            ⁸ Gr. der perg. Inschr., 1898.

            ⁹ La decl. dans les inscr. att. de l'Empire, 1895.

            ¹⁰ Quest. de epigram. Graecis, 1883.

            ¹¹ Laute und Formen der magn. Inschr., 1903; cf. also Solmsen, Inscr.

Graecae ad illustr. Dial. sel.; Audollent, Defix. Tabellae, 1904; Michel, Rec.

d'inscr. Graec., 1883; Dittenberger, Or. Graeci Inscr. Sel., 1903-1905; Roberts-

Gardner, Intr. to Gk. Epigr., 1888. See Bibliography. Cf. especially the

various volumes of the Corpus Inscr. Graecarum.

            ¹² As, for example, Paton and Hicks, The Inscr. of Cos, 1891; Kern, Die

Inschr. von Magn., 1900; Gartingen, Inschr. von Priene, 1906; Gartingen

and Paton, Inscr. Maris Aegaei, 1903; Letronne, Rec. des inscr. lat. et grec.

de 1'Egypte, 1842. As early as 1779 Walch made use of the inscriptions for

the N. T. Gk. in his Observationes in Matt. ex graecis inscriptionibus. Cf.

also the works of E. L. Hicks, Lightfoot; Ramsay.

            ¹³ Essai sur l'Hellenisme Egypt., 1908, p. vi. He says: "Les decouvertes

recentes des archeologues ont dissipe ces illusions. Des ruines de Naucratis,

de Daphne, de Gurob, et de l'Illahoun (pour ne citer que les localites dans

lesquelles les recherches ont donne le plus de resultats) est sortie toute une

nouvelle Grece; une Grece anterieure aux Ramses . . .; et, si les recherches se

continuent, on ne tardera pas, nous en sommes convaincus, acquerir la

certitude que les Grecs sont aussi anciens en Egypte qu'en Grece meme."

16       A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

Evans in Crete have pushed back the known examples of Greek

a thousand years or more. The linear script of Knossos, Crete,

may be some primitive form of Greek 500 years before the first

dated example of Phoenician writing. The civilization of the

Hellenic race was very old when Homer wrote, — how old no

one dares say.¹  For specimens of the use of the inscriptions see

Buck's Introduction to the Study of the Greek Dialects (Gram-

mar, Selected Inscriptions, Glossary), 1910.

          (f) FULLER KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIALECTS. The new knowledge

of the other dialects makes it possible to form a juster judgment

of the relative position of the Attic. There has been much confu-

sion on this subject and concerning the relation of the various

Greek races. It now seems clear that the Pelasgians, Achaeans,

Dorians were successively dominant in Greece.² Pelasgian ap-

pears to be the name for the various pre-Achaean tribes, and it

was the Pelasgian tribe that made Mycenae glorious.³ Homer

sings the glories of the Achaeans who displaced the Pelasgians,

while "the people who play a great part in later times — Dorians,

AEolians, Ionians — are to Homer little more than names."⁴

The Pelasgian belonged to the bronze age, the Achaean to the

iron age.⁵ The Pelasgians may have been Slavs and kin to the

Etruscans of Italy. The Achans were possibly Celts from

northern Europe.⁶ The old Ionic was the base of the old Attic.⁷

This old Ionic-Attic was the archaic Greek tongue, and the

choruses in the Attic poets partly represent artificial literary

Doric. There was not a sharp division⁸ between the early dia-

lects owing to the successive waves of population sweeping over

the country. There were numerous minor subdivisions in the

dialects (as the Arcadian, Boeotian, Northwest, Thessalian, etc.)

due to the mountain ranges, the peninsulas, the islands, etc.,

and other causes into which we cannot enter. For a skilful at-

tempt at grouping and relating the dialects to each other see

Thumb's Handbuch, p. 54 f. The matter cannot be elaborated

here (see ch. III). But the point needs to be emphasized that

 

            ¹ A. J. Evans, Ann. Rep. of the Smiths. Inst., p. 436.

            ² See Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, vol. I, p. 84.

            ³ Ib., p. 293. For the contribution of the dialects to the κοινή see ch. III.

            ⁴ Giles, Man. of Comp. Philol., 1901, p. 526.                 ⁵ Ib., p. 406.

            ⁶ Ridgeway, op. cit., vol. I, p. 337.                                 ⁷ Ib., pp. 666-670.

            ⁸ Hoffmann, Die griech. Dial., Bd. I, p. 7. A more recent treatment of the

dialects is Thumb's Handb. der griech. Dial. (1909), which makes use of all

the recent discoveries from the inscriptions. On the mixing of the dialects

see Thumb, p. 61 f.

                                    NEW MATERIAL                                    17

 

the literary dialects by no means represent the linguistic history

of Greece itself and still less that of the islands and other colonies

(cf. Buck's Greek Dialects, p. 1). The blending of these dialects

into the κοινή) was not complete as we shall see.¹  "Of dialects the

purest Hellenic is Dorian, preserved in religious odes, — pure be-

cause they kept aloof from their subjects. The next is the AEolic,

preserved in lyric odes of the Lesbian school. The earliest to be

embodied in literature was Ionic, preserved in epic poems. The

most perfect is Attic, the language of drama, philosophy and

oratory. This arose out of the Ionic by introducing some of

the strength of Doric-AEolic forms without sacrificing the sweet

smoothness of Ionic."² In general concerning the Greek dialects

one may consult the works of Meister,³ Ridgeway,⁴ Hoffmann,⁵

Thumb,⁶ Buck,⁷ Boisacq,⁸ Pezzi,⁹ etc.

          (g) THE PAPYRI AND OSTRACA. Thiersch in 1841 had pointed

out the value of the papyri for the study of the LXX in his De

Pentateuchi versione Alexandrina, but nobody thought it worth

while to study the masses of papyri in London, Paris and Ber-

lin for the N. T. language. Farrar (Messages of the Books, 1884,

p. 151) noted the similarity of phrase between Paul's correspon-

dence and the papyri in the Brit. Mus. "N. T. philology is at

present undergoing thorough reconstruction; and probably all the

workers concerned, both on the continent and in English-speaking

countries, are by this time agreed that the starting-point for the

philological investigations must be the language of the non-literary

papyri, ostraca, and inscriptions" (Deissmann, Light, etc., p. 55).

The κοινή is now rich in material for the study of the vernacular

or popular speech as opposed to the book language. This distinc-

tion belongs to all languages which have a literature and to all

periods of the language. It is particularly true of the modern

 

            ¹ See Dieterich, Die Κοινή and die heut. kleinasiat. Mundarten-Unters. zur

Gesch. etc., pp. 271-310. Cf. Chabert, Hist. sommaire des et. d'epigr. grecque,

1906.

            ² MS. Notes on Gk. Gr. by H. H. Harris, late Prof. of Gk. at Richmond

College.

            ³ Griech. Dial., Bd. I, 1882, Bd. II, 1889; cf. Hicks, Man. of Gk. Hist.

Inscr., 1888.                                                                             ⁴ Op. cit.

            ⁵ Op. cit. and Bd. II, 1893, Bd. III, 1898. See also various volumes of the

Samml. der griech. Dial.-Inschr.

            ⁶ Handb. der griech. Dial., 1909.                                                ⁷ Gk. Dialects.

            ⁸ Les dialectes Doriens, 1891; cf. also H. W. Smyth, The Gk. Dial. (Ionic

only), 1894.

            ⁹ Lingua Greca Antica, 1888. Cf. Lambert, Et. stir le dial. Cohen, 1903.

18      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

Greek to-day as it was true in the early period. The Athenian

newspapers as a rule affect the καθαρεύουσα. Occasionally a

writer like Aristophanes would on purpose write in the language

of the street. It is not therefore a peculiarity of the κοινή that

the vernacular Greek prevailed then. It always prevails. But

the καθαρεύουσα has secured a more disastrous supremacy over

the δημοτική than in any other language. And we are now

able to estimate the vernacular κοινή, since the great papyri

discoveries of Flinders-Petrie, Grenfell and Hunt and others.

We had already the excellent discussions of Mullach,¹ Niebuhr,²

Blass,³ Foy⁴ and Lottich.⁵  But in the last fifteen years or so a

decided impetus has been given to this phase of Greek grammatical

research. It is in truth a new study, the attention now paid to

the vernacular, as Moulton points out in his Prolegomena (p. 22).

"I will go further and say that if we could only recover letters

that ordinary people wrote to each other without being literary,

we should have the greatest possible help for the understanding

of the language of the N. T. generally" (Bishop Lightfoot, 1863,

as quoted in Moulton's Prol., 2d and 3d ed., p. 242). If Lightfoot

only lived now! Cf. Masson's Preface to Winer (1859).

          The most abundant source of new light for the vernacular κοινή  

is found in the papyri collections, many volumes of which have

already been published (see Index of Quots. for fuller list), while

more are yet to be issued. Indeed, Prof. W. N. Stearns⁶ com-

plains: "There would seem to be a plethora of such material

already as evidenced by such collections as the Berlinische Ur-

kunde and the Rainier Papyri." But the earnest student of the

Greek tongue can only rejoice at the "extraordinary and in part

unexpected wealth of material from the contemporary and the

later languages."⁷ See the publications of Drs. Grenfell and Hunt,⁸

 

            ¹ Gr. der griech. Vulgarspr., 1856.

            ² Uber das Agyp.-Griech., Kl. Schr., II, p. 197 f.

            ³ Die griech. Beredsamkeit von Alex. bis auf Aug., 1865.

            ⁴ Lauts. der griech. Vulgarspr., 1879.

            ⁵ De Serm. vulg. Att., 1881.

            ⁶ Am. Jour. of Theol., Jan., 1906, p. 134.

            ⁷ Samuel Dickey, New Points of View for the Study of the Gk. of the N. T.

(Prince. Theol. Rev., Oct., 1903).

            ⁸ Oxyrhyn. Pap., vols. I–XII, 1898-1916; Faytim Pap., 1900; Tebtunis

Pap., 1902 (Univ. of Cal. Publ., pts. I, II, 1907); Hibeh Pap., pt. I, 1906; vol.

IV, Oxyrhyn. Pap., pp. 265-271, 1904; Grenfell and Hunt, The Hibeh Pap.,

1906, pt. I. In general, for the bibliography of the papyri see Hohlwein,

La papyrol. grec., bibliog. raisonnee, 1905.

                                     NEW MATERIAL                                   19

 

Mahaffy,¹ Goodspeed,² the Berlinische Urkunde,³ Papyri in the

British Museum,⁴ the Turin Papyri,⁵ the Leyden Papyri,⁶ the

Geneva Papyri,⁷ Lord Amherst's collection (Paris, 1865), etc. For

general discussions of the papyri see the writings of Wilcken,⁸

Kenyon,⁹ Hartel,¹⁰ Haberlin,¹¹ Viereck,¹² Deissmann,¹³ de Ricci,¹⁴

Wessely.¹⁵  A great and increasing literature is thus coming into

existence on this subject. Excellent handbooks of convenient

size are those by H. Lietzmann, Greek Papyri (1905), and by

G. Milligan, Greek Papyri (1910). For a good discussion of the

papyri and the literature on the subject see Deissmann, Light,

etc., pp. 20-41. The grammatical material in the papyri has not

been exhausted. There are a number of excellent workers in the

field such as Mayser,16 St. Witkowski,¹⁷ Deissmann,¹⁸ Moulton,¹⁹

H. A. A. Kennedy,²⁰ Jannaris,²¹ Kenyon,²² Voelker,²³ Thumb.²⁴

 

            ¹ Flinders-Petrie Pap., 1891, 1892, 1893.

            ² Gk. Pap. from the Cairo Mus., 1902, 1903.

            ³ Griech. Urik., 1895, 1898, 1903, 1907, etc.

            ⁴ F. G. Kenyon, Cat. of Gk. Pap. in the B. M., 1893; Evid. of the Pap. for

Text. Crit. of the N. T., 1905; B. M. Pap., vol. I, 1893, vol. II, 1898.

            ⁵ Peyron, 1826, 1827.

            ⁶ Zauber Pap., 1885; Leeman's Pap. Graeci, 1843.

            ⁷ J. Nicole, 1896, 1900; cf. Wessely's Corpus Pap., 1895.

            ⁸ Griech. Papyrusurk., 1897; Archly fur Papyrusforsch. und verve. Gebiete,

1900—.

            ⁹ Palaeog. of Gk. Pap., 1899; art. Papyri in Hast. D. B. (ext. vol.).

            ¹⁰ Uber die griech. Pap.

            ¹¹ Griech. Pap., Centralbl. fiir Bibliothekswesen, 14. 1 f.

            ¹² Ber. uber die altere Pap.-Lit., Jahresb. uber d. Fortschr. etc., 1898, 1899.

            ¹³ Art. Papyri in Encyc. Bibl.

            ¹⁴ Bul. papyrologique in Rev. des Rt. grecques since 1901.

            ¹⁵ Papyrus-Samml. since 1883. Cf. also Cronert, Mem. Graec. Hercul.,

1903; Reinach, Pap. grecs et &mot. etc., 1905.

            ¹⁶ Gr. der griech. Pap., Tl. I, Laut- und Wortl., 1906.

            ¹⁷ Prodromus Gr. Pap. Grace. aetatis Lagidarum, 26. Bd. der Abhandl.

der Phil. class. der Acad. zu Krakau, 1897, pp. 196-260.

            ¹⁸ B. S., 1901; Light, etc.; art. Hell. Griech. in Hauck's Realencyc.; art.

Papyrus in Encyc. Bibl., etc.

            ¹⁹ Gr. Notes from the Pap., Cl. Rev., 1901; Notes on the Pap., Exp.,

April, 1901, Feb., 1903; Characteristics of N. T. Gk., Exp., March to Dec.,

1904; Prol. to Gr. of N. T. Gk., 1908, 3d ed., etc.

            ²⁰ Sources of N. T. Gk., 1895; Recent Res. in the Lang. of the N. T., Exp.

Times, May, July, Sept., 1901.

            ²¹ Hist. Gk. Gr., 1897; The Term κοινή, Cl. Rev., March, 1903.

            ²² Art. Papyri in Hast. D. B.

            ²³ Syntax der griech. Pap., Tl. I, 1903.

            ²⁴ Die Forsch. uber die hell. Spr. in d. Jahr. 1896-1901, Archiv far Papyrus-

forsch., 1903, pp. 396-426; Die Forsch. uber die hell. Spr. in d. Jahr. 1902-4,

20      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

These are all helpful, but Cronert¹ is right in urging that we

need a comprehensive discussion of the syntax of the Ptolemaic

papyri in order to set forth properly the relation of the papyri

both to the N. T. Greek and to the older Attic. This will require

time, for the mass of material is very great and is constantly

growing.² But enough already is clear for us to see the general

bearing of the whole on the problem of the N. T. It is just here

that the papyri have special interest and value. They give the

language of business and life. The N. T. writers were partly

ἀγράμματοι, but what they wrote has become the chief Book of

Mankind.³ Hear Deissmann⁴ again, for he it is who has done

most to blaze the way here: "The papyrus-leaf is alive; one sees

autographs, individual peculiarities of penmanship — in a word,

men; manifold glimpses are given into inmost nooks and crannies

of personal life in which history has no eyes and historians no

glasses . . . It may seem a paradox, but it can safely be affirmed

that the unliterary papyri are more important in these respects

than the literary." Some of the papyri contain literary works,

fragments of Greek classics, portions of the LXX or of the N. T.,

though the great mass of them are non-literary documents, let-

ters and business papers. Cf. also Deissmann, Light, etc., p. 29.

Unusual interest attaches to the fragments containing the Logia

of Jesus, some of which are new, dating from the second or third

centuries A.D. and showing a Gnostic tinge.⁵ It is no longer pos-

sible to say, what even Friedrich Blass⁶ did in 1894, that the N. T.

Greek "is to be regarded something by itself and following laws

of its own." That view is doomed in the presence of the papyri.

Hatch⁷ in particular laboured under this error. The N. T. Greek

 

Archiv fur Pap., 111. 4; also Jahresb. fiber die Fortschr. des Class., 1906;

Diegriech. Papyrusurk., 1899-1905, pp. 36-40; Die griech. Spr. etc., 1901.

            ¹ Archiv fur Pap.-Forsch., 1900, p. 215.

            ² “Zum ersten Mal gewinnen wir reale Vorstellungen von dem Zustand

und der Entwickelung der handschriftlichen Lebenslieferung im Altertum

selbst. Neue wichtige Probleme sind damit der Philologie gestellt." N.

Wilcken, Die griech. Papyrusurk., 1897, p. 7. Mayser's Tl. II will supply

this need when it appears.

            ³ See Deissmann, Die sprachl. Erforsch. der griech. Bibel, 1898, p. 27.

            ⁴ Art. Papyri in Encyc. Bibl.

            ⁵ See Λόγια  Ἰησοῦ, Sayings of Jesus, by Grenfell and Hunt, 1897. New

Sayings of Jesus, by Grenfell and Hunt, 1904. See also two books by Dr. C.

Taylor, The Oxyrhyn. Logia, 1899; The Oxyrhyn. Sayings of Jesus, 1905;

Lock and Sanday, Two Lect. on the Sayings of Jesus, 1897.

            ⁶ Theol. Literaturzeit., 1894, p. 338.

            ⁷ Essays in Bibl. Gk., 1892, p. 11 f. The earliest dated papyrus is now

                                  NEW MATERIAL                                 21

 

will no longer be despised as inferior or unclassical. It will be

seen to be a vital part of the great current of the Greek language.

For the formal discussion of the bearing of the papyri on the N. T.

Greek see chapter IV. A word should be said concerning the

reason why the papyri are nearly all found in Egypt.¹ It is due

to the dryness of the climate there. Elsewhere the brittle material

soon perished, though it has on the whole a natural toughness.

The earliest known use of the papyri in Egypt is about 3400 B.C.

More exactly, the reign of Assa in the fifth dynasty is put at

3360 B.C. This piece of writing is an account-sheet belonging

to this reign (Deissmann, Light from A. E., p. 22). The oldest

specimen of the Greek papyri goes back to "the regnal year of

Alexander AEgus, the son of Alexander the Great. That would

make it the oldest Greek papyrus document yet discovered"

(Deissmann, Light, etc., p. 29). The discoveries go on as far as

the seventh century A.D., well into the Byzantine period. The

plant still grows in Egypt and it was once the well-nigh universal

writing material. As waste paper it was used to wrap the mum-

mies. Thus it has come to be preserved. The rubbish-heaps at

Faram and Oxyrhynchus are full of these papyri scraps.

          Mention should be made also of the ostraca, or pieces of pot-

tery, which contain numerous examples of the vernacular κοινή.

For a very interesting sketch of the ostraca see Deissmann, Light,

etc. (pp. 41-53). Crum and Wilcken have done the chief work on

the ostraca. They are all non-literary and occur in old Egyptian,

Arabic, Aramaic, Coptic, Greek and Latin. "Prof. Wilcken, in

his Griechische Ostraka,² has printed the texts of over sixteen

hundred of the inscribed potsherds on which the commonest re-

ceipts and orders of Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt were written."³

It was the material used by the poorer classes.

          (h) THE BYZANTINE AND THE MODERN GREEK. The Byzantine

and modern Greek has at last received adequate'' recognition.

 

P. Eleph. 1 (311 n.c.), not P. Hibeh, as Thackeray has it in his Gr. of the 0. T.

in Gk., p. 56. This was true in 1907; cf. Moulton, Cl. Rev., March, 1910, p. 53.

            ¹ The practical limitation of the papyri to Egypt (and Herculaneum) has

its disadvantages; cf. Angus, The Κοινή, The Lang. of the N. T. (Prince.

Theol. Rev., Jan., 1910, p. 80).

            ² Griech. Ostraka aus Agypten and Nubien, Bd. I, H, 1899; cf. also Crum,

Coptic Ostraca, 2 vols. (1899); cf. Hilprecht, S. S. Times, 1902, p. 560. "In

many Coptic letters that are written on potsherds the writers beg their cor-

respondents to excuse their having to use an ostrakon for want of papyrus"

(Deissmann, Exp. Times, 1906, Oct., p. 15).

            ³ E. J. Goodspeed, Am. Jour. of Theol., Jan., 1906, p. 102.

22     A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

The student of the N. T. idiom has much to learn from the new

books on this subject. The scorn bestowed on the κοινή by the

intense classicists was intensified by the modern Greek, which

was long regarded as a nondescript jumble of Greek, Albanian,

Turkish, Italian, etc. Indeed the modern Greeks themselves

have not always shown proper appreciation of the dignity of the

modern vernacular, as is shown, for instance, in the recent up-

heaval at Athens by the University students over the translation

of the Gospels into the Greek vernacular (δημοτική) of to-day,

though the N. T. was manifestly written in the vernacular of its

day. "While the later Greeks, however, could no longer write

classically, they retained a keen sense for the beauties of the

classical language."¹ Just as the "popular Latin finally sup-

pressed the Latin of elegant literature,"² so the vernacular κοινή  

lived on through the Roman and Byzantine periods and survives

to-day as the modern Greek. There is unity in the present-day

Greek and historical continuity with the past. Dr. Rose is pos-

sibly extreme in saying: "There is more difference between the

Greek of Herodotus and the Greek of Xenophon than there is

between the Greek of the latter and the Greek of to-day."³ And

certainly Prof. Dickey⁴ is right in affirming "that the Greek of

N. T. stands in the centre of the development of which classical

and modern Greek may be called extremes, and that of the two

it is nearer to the second in character than the first. The inter-

pretation of the N. T. has almost entirely been in the sole light

of the ancient, i. e. the Attic Greek, and, therefore, to that ex-

tent has been unscientific and often inaccurate." Hatzidakis⁵

indeed complained that the whole subject had been treated with

 

            ¹ Dr. Achilles Rose, Chris. Greece and Living Gk., 1898, p. 7.

            ² R. C. Jebb, On the Rela. of Mod. to Class. Gk., in V. and D.'s Handb.:

to Mod. Gk., 1887, p. 287. "In other words, the Bible was cast into spoken

Latin, familiar to every rank of society though not countenanced in the

schoolroom; and thus it foreshadowed the revolution of ages whereby the

Roman tongue expanded into what we may label as Romance." W. Barry,

"Our Latin Bible," in Dublin Rev., July, 1906, p. 4; cf. also art. on The

Holy Latin Tongue, in April number.

            ³ Chris. Greece and Living Greek, p. 253.

            ⁴ New Points of View for the Study of N. T. Gk. (Prince. Theol.

Oct., 1903). See also S. Angus, Mod. Methods in N. T. Philol. (Harv. Theol.

Rev., Oct., 1911, p. 499): "That the progress of philology has thus broken

down the wall of partition of the N. T. and removed its erstwhile isolation

a great service to the right understanding of the book's contents."

            ⁵ Einl. in die neugr. Gr., 1892, p. ix; cf. also H. C. Muller, Hist. Gr. de

hell. Spr., 1891.

                                 NEW MATERIAL                                  23

 

unworthy "dilettanteism" and not without ground for the com-

plaint. He himself did much by his great work to put the study

of modern Greek on a scientific basis,¹ but he has not worked

alone in this important field. Another native Greek, Prof. Sopho-

cles, has produced a Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine

Periods in which there is an excellent discussion for that time² of

the κοινή, the Byzantine and the modern Greek. Other scholars

have developed special phases of the problem, as Krumbacher,³

who has enriched our knowledge of the Byzantine⁴ or Middle

Ages Greek. Dieterich⁵ also has done fine work in this period of

Greek, as has Thumb.⁶  Worthy of mention also is the work of

G. Meyer,⁷ Geldart⁸ and Preste1,⁹ though the latter have not

produced books of great value. See also Meyer-Lithke's gram-

mar,¹⁰ Jannaris' Historical Greek Grammar and the writings of

Psichari.¹¹  In general great progress has been made and it is now

possible to view the development of the N. T. idiom in the

light of the modern Greek. The apparent drift in the vernacular

 

            ¹ "Und wenn es mir gelingt, die wissenschaftliche Welt von ihrer wohl-

berechtigten Zuruckhaltung abzubringen und ihr nachzuweisen, dass das

Mittel- und Neugriechische ein vielversprechendes unkultivirtes Gebiet der

Wissenschaft ist, woraus man viel, sehr viel bezuglich der Sprachwissenschaft

uberhaupt wie des Altgriechischen speciell lernen kann, so ist mein Zweck

vollkommen erreicht." Ib., p. x.

            ² 1870. One of the pressing needs is a lexicon of the papyri also. See

Contopoulos, Lex. of Mod. Gk., 1868, and others.

            ³ Das Problem der neugr. Schriftspr., 1903. "Heute bedarf das Studien-

gebiet der byzantinischen und neugricchischen Philologie keine Apologie," p. 3.

In his hands the middle Gk. (Byzantine) is shown to be a rich field for the

student both of philology and literature; cf. also Gesch. der byzant. Lit.,

p. 20.

            ⁴ Gesch. der byzant. Lit. etc.; cf. also his Byz. Zeitschr. and his Beitr.

zu einer Gesch. der griech. Spr., Kuhn's Zeitschr., 1885.

Unters. zur Gesch. d. griech. Spr. etc., 1898; Gesch. der byz. und neugr.

Lit., 1902.

            ⁵ Handb. d. neugr. Volkspr., 1895; Thumb-Angus, Handb. of Mod. Gk. Ver-

nac., 1912; Die neugr. Sprachforsch. in d. Jahr. 1890 u. 1891 (Anz. fur indoger.

Spr., I, 1892; VI, 1896, and IX, 1898); Die griech. Spr. im Zeitalter des

Hellen., 1901; Die sprachgesch. Stellung des bibl. Griechisch, Theol. Runds.,

March, 1902.

            ⁷ Neugr. Stud., 1894.

            ⁸ The Mod. Gk. Lang. in its Rela. to Anc. Gk., 1870. On the Orig. and

Devel. of the Mod. Gk. Lang., Jour. of Philol., 1869.

            ⁹ Zur Entwickelungsgesch. der griech. Spr.

            ¹⁰ Gr. der romanischen Spr.

            ¹¹ Essais de Gr. hist. Neogrecque, 1886; cf. also Boltz Die hell. Spr. der

Gegenw., 1882.

24      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

κοινή of the N. T., like  ἵνα in the non-final clause, is too common

for remark in the modern Greek. Indeed the N. T. had a pre-

dominant influence on the later Greek as the chief literature of

the period, and especially as Christianity won the victory over

heathenism. The Byzantine Greek is in subject-matter largely

ecclesiastical. The sermons and treatises of the Greek Christian

Fathers constitute a large and valuable literature and amply il-

lustrate the language of the time.¹ The modern Greek is in all

essential points the same as the Byzantine Greek of 1000 A.D.

In forty years² we have seen a revolution in the study of the

modern Greek. But as late as 1887 Vincent and Dickson³ could

say: "By many it is believed that a corrupt patois of Turkish

and Italian is now spoken in Greece; and few even among pro-

fessed scholars are aware how small the difference is between the

Greek of the N. T. and the Greek of a contemporary Athenian

newspaper." The new Greek speech was developed not out of

the Byzantine literary language, but out of the Hellenistic popular

speech.⁴

          (i) THE HEBREW AND ARAMAIC. Less that is new has come

from the Hebrew and Aramaic field of research. Still real ad-

vance has been made here also. The most startling result is the

decrease of emphasis upon Hebraisms in the N. T. style. In

chapter IV, iii the Semitic influence on the N. T. language is dis-

cussed. Here the literary history is sketched.

          1. The Old View. It was only in 1879 that Guillemard⁵ issued

his Hebraisms in the Greek Testament, in which he said in the

Preface: "I earnestly disavow any claim to an exhaustive exhibi-

tion of all the Hebraisms, or all the deviations from classical

phraseology contained in the Greek Testament; of which I have

gathered together and put forward only a few specimens, in the

hope of stimulating others to fuller and more exact research."

Even in 1889, Dr. Edwin Hatch⁶ says: "Biblical Greek is thus a

 

            ¹ See the Migne Lib. and the new Ben Royal Lib. ed.

            ² Dieterich, op. cit., p. 10.

            ³ Handb. to Mod. Gk., p. 3. See also Horae Hellenicae, by Stuart Blackie,

1874, p. 115: "Byzantine Gk. was classical Gk. from beginning to end, wit''

only such insignificant changes as the altered circumstances, combined with

the law of its original genius, naturally produced." Cf. Rangabe, Gr. Abre-

gee du grec actuel; Γεννάδιος, Γραμματικὴ τῆς  Ἑλλενικῆς Γλώσσης.

            ⁴ Dieterich, op. cit., p. 5.

            ⁵ See also A. Miller, Semit. Lehnw. in alteren Griech., Bezzenb. Beitr.

1878, I, pp. 273 ff.; S. Krauss, Griech. und lat. Lehnw. im Tal., 1898, 1899.

            ⁶ Essays in Bibl. Gk., p. 11.

                                      NEW MATERIAL                                 25

 

language by itself. What we have to find out in studying it is

what meaning certain Greek words conveyed to a Semitic mind."

Again he says¹: "The great majority of N. T. words are words

which, though for the most part common to biblical and to con-

temporary secular Greek, express in their biblical use the concep-

tions of a Semitic race, and which must consequently be examined

by the light of the cognate documents which form the LXX."

And W. H. Simcox² says: "Thus it is that there came to exist a

Hellenistic dialect, having real though variable differences from

the Common or Hellenic."

          2. A Change with Kennedy. But a turn comes when H. A. A.

Kennedy³ says: "But while the writer began with a complete,

though provisional, acceptance of Hatch's conclusions, the far-

ther the inquiry was pushed, the more decidedly was he com-

pelled to doubt those conclusions, and finally to seek to establish

the connection between the language of the LXX and that of

the N. T. on a totally different basis." He finds that common

bond in "the colloquial Greek of the time."⁴

          3. Deissmann's Revolt. The full revolt against the theory of a

Semitic or biblical Greek is seen in the writings of Deissmann,⁵

who says⁶: "The theory indicated is a great power in exegesis,

and that it possesses a certain plausibility is not to be denied.

It is edifying, and what is more, is convenient. But it is absurd.

It mechanizes the marvellous variety of the linguistic elements

of the Greek Bible and cannot be established either by the psy-

chology of language or by history." There is here some of the

zeal of new discovery, but it is true. The old view of Hatch is

dead and gone. The "clamant need of a lexicon to the LXX"

is emphasized by Deissmann⁷ himself. Prof. H. B. Swete of

Cambridge has laid all biblical students under lasting obligation

 

            ¹ Ib., p. 34. See also p. 9: "Biblical Gk. belongs not only to a later period

of the history of the language than classical Gk., but also to a different coun-

try." On page 14 we read: "It is a true paradox that while, historically as

well as philologically, the Gk. (LXX) is a translation of the Hebrew, philo-

logically, though not historically, the Hebrew may be regarded as a trans-

lation of the Gk."

            ² The Lang. of the N. T., 1890, p. 15. Note the date, as late as 1890.

Sources of N. T. Gk., 1895, p. v.                                               ⁴ Ib., p. 146.

            ⁵ Die sprachl. Erforsch. der griech. Bibel, 1898; B. S., 1901; Hell. Griech.,

Hauck's Realencyc., New Light (1907), etc.                   ⁶ B. S., p. 65.

            ⁷ Ib., p. 73. Schleusner, 1821, is hopelessly inadequate and out of date.

Hatch and Redpath have issued in six parts (two volumes) a splendid con-

cordance to the LXX and other Gk. versions of the 0. T., 1892-1896, 1900.

26      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

to him by his contribution to the study of the Septuagint, con-

sisting of an edition of the LXX¹ with brief critical apparatus

and a general discussion² of the Septuagint. Brooke and McLean

are publishing an edition of the Septuagint with exhaustive crit-

ical apparatus.³ Students of the LXX now rejoice in Helbing's Gr.

der Septuaginta: Laut- u. Formenlehre (1907) and Thackeray's

Gr. of the 0. T. in Greek, vol. I (1909). Conybeare and Stock's  

Selections from the Septuagint (1905) has the old standpoint.

Other modern workers in this department are Nestle,⁴ Lagarde,⁵

Hartung,⁶ Ralf's,⁷ Susemihl,⁸ Apostolides.⁹

          4. The Language of Jesus. Another point of special interest in

this connection, which may be discussed as well now as later, is

the new light concerning the Aramaic as the language habitually

spoken by Jesus. This matter has been in much confusion and

the scholars are not at one even now. Roberts¹⁰ maintains that

Greek, not Hebrew, was "the language of the common public

intercourse in Palestine in the days of Christ and His apostles."

By Hebrew he means Aramaic. In The Expositor (1st series, vols.

VI, VII) Roberts argued also that Christ usually spoke Greek.

He was replied to (vol. VII) by Sanday. Lightfoot (on Gal. 4:6)

holds that Jesus said  Ἀββά ὁ πατήρ thus, Mark not having trans-

lated it. Thomson, "The Language of Palestine" (Temple Bible

Dict.), argues strongly that Christ spoke Greek, not Aramaic.

Neubauer¹¹ contends that there was spoken besides at Jerusalem

and in Judea a modernized Hebrew, and comments¹² on "how

 

            ¹ The O.T. in Gk. according to the LXX, vols. I–III, 1887-1894. He does

not give an edited text, but follows one MS. at a time with critical apparatus

in footnotes.

            ² An Intr. to the 0. T. in Gk., 1900; 2d ed., 1914.

            ³ The Larger Camb. LXX, 1906—.

            ⁴ Ed. of the LXX with Crit. Apparatus, 1880-1887; Sept.-Stud., 1886-

1896; Urtext and ubersetz. der Bibel, 1897. Nestle died in 1913.

            ⁵ Sept.-Stud., 1891-1892.                      ⁶ Ib., 1886.                    ⁷ Ib., 1904.

            ⁸ Gesch. der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinzeit, Bd. I, II, 1891, 1892.

            ⁹ Du grec Alexandrin et de ses rapports avec le grec ancien et le grec mo-

derne, 1892. Cf. among the older discussions, Sturz, De dial. Maced. et

Alexan., 1808; Lipsius, Gr. Unters. fiber die bibl. Grac., 1853; Churton, The

Infl. of the LXX upon the Prog. of Chris., 1861. See also Anz, Subs. ad

cognos. Graec. serm. vulg. e Pent. vers. Alexan., 1894.

            ¹⁰ Disc. on the Gosp., pt. I, On the Lang. Employed by Our Lord and His

Apost., 1864, p. 316; A Short Proof that Greek was the Language of Jesus

(1893).

            ¹¹ On the Dial. of Palestine in the Time of Ch., Stud. Bibl., 1885.

            ¹² Stud. Bibl., p. 54.

                                 NEW MATERIAL                                   27

 

little the Jews knew Greek." A. Meyer¹ urges that the vernacular

of Jesus was Aramaic and shows what bearing this fact has on

the interpretation of the Gospels. A. Julicher² indeed says: "To

suppose, however (as, e.g. G. B. Winer supposes, because of

Mk. 7:34; Jo. 7: 25; 12:20) that Jesus used the Greek language

is quite out of the question." But Young, vol. II, Dictionary of

Christ and the Gospels (Hastings), article "Language of Christ,"

admits that Christ used both, though usually he spoke Aramaic.

So Moulton, Prolegomena, p. 8. But Dalman³ has done more

than any one in showing the great importance of the Aramaic for

the interpretation of the words of Jesus. He denies the use of a

modernized Hebrew in Jerusalem and urges that proper names

like Βηθεσδά, ‫בֵּית חֶזְדָּא, are Aramaic (but see J. Rendel Harris,

Side Lights on the N. T., p. 71 f.). Dalman further urges that

"Aramaic was the mother tongue of the Galileans."⁴  J. T.

Marshall⁵ makes out a plausible case for the idea of a primitive

Aramaic Gospel before our Mark, and this would make it more

probable that Jesus spoke Aramaic. E. A. Abbott⁶ also attempts

to reproduce the original Aramaic of the words of Jesus from the

Greek. But Prof. Mahaffy⁷ can still say: "And so from the very

beginning, though we may believe that in Galilee and among His

intimates our Lord spoke Aramaic, and though we know that

some of His last words upon the cross were in that language, yet

His public teaching, His discussions with the Pharisees, His talk

 

            ¹ Jesu Mutterspr.: das galilaische Aram. in seiner Bedeut. fur die Erkl. der

Reden Jesu and der Evang. uberhaupt, 1896. So Deissmann (Light, etc.,

p. 57) says that Jesus "did not speak Gk. when He went about His public

work," and, p. 1, "Jesus preaches in his Aramaic mother-tongue."

            ² Art. Hellenism in Encyc. Bibl. Canon Foakes-Jackson (Interp., July, 1907,

p. 392) says: "The Jews of high birth or with a reputation for sanctity are

said to have refused to learn any language but their own, and thus we have

the strange circumstance in Roman Palestine of the lower orders speaking

two languages and their leaders only one."

            ³ The Words of Jesus considered in the Light of the post-Bibl. Jewish

Writings and the Aram. Lang., 1902. Cf. also Pfannkuche (Clark's Bibl.

Cab.).

            ⁴ Ib., p. 10.

            ⁵ Exp., ser. IV, VI, VIII. See also Brockelmann, Syrische Gr., 1904;

Schwally, Idioticon des christl.-palestinischen Aramäisch, 1893; Riggs, Man.

of the Chaldean Lang., 1866; Wilson, Intr. Syriac Meth. and Man., 1891;

Strack, Gr. des bibl. Aramaischen.

            ⁶ Clue, A Guide through Gk. to Heb., 1904.

            ⁷ The Prog. of Hellen. in Alexan. Emp., 1905, p. 130 f. Hadley (Ess. Phil.

and Crit., p. 413) reaches the conclusion that Jesus spoke both Gk. and Aram.

28      A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

with Pontius Pilate, were certainly carried on mainly in the

Greek." Zahn (Intr. to the N. T.) labours needlessly to show

that Hebrew was no longer the language of Palestine, but he does

not prove that Aramaic was everywhere spoken, nor that Jesus

always spoke Aramaic. Wellhausen (Einl. in die drei erst. Evang.)

is prejudiced in favour of the Aramaic theory. It may be admitted

at once that Aramaic was known to the majority of the Jews in

Palestine, particularly in Judea. Cf. Ac. 1:19:  τῇ διαλέκτῳ αὐτῶν

Ἁκελδαμάχ; 22:2, ἀκούσαντες ὅτι τῇ  Ἐβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ προσε-

φώνει αὐτοῖς μᾶλλον παρέσχον ἡσυχίαν. There is no doubt which

language is the vernacular in Jerusalem. Cf. also 26:14. Jo-

sephus confirms Luke on this point (War, V, 6. 3), for the people

of Jerusalem cried out τῇ πατρίῳ γλώσσῃ, and Josephus also acted

intermediary for Titus, τῇ πατρίῳ γλώσσῃ (War, VI, 2. 1). See

also 2 Macc. 7: 8, 21. Josephus wrote his War first in Aramaic

and then in Greek. The testimony of Papias that Matthew

wrote his λόγια in Aramaic bears on the question because of the

tradition that Mark was the interpreter of Peter. The brogue

that Peter revealed (Mt. 26:73) was probably due to his Gali-

lean accent of Aramaic. Aramaic was one of the languages for

the inscription on the cross (Jo. 19:20). It is clear therefore that

the Hellenizing work of Jason and Menelaus and Antiochus

Epiphanes received a set-back in Palestine. The reaction kept

Greek from becoming the one language of the country. Even in

Lycaonia the people kept their vernacular though they under-

stood Greek (Ac. 14:11). On the other hand Peter clearly spoke

in Greek on the Day of Pentecost, and no mention is made of

Greek as one of the peculiar "tongues," on that occasion. It

is clear that Paul was understood in Jerusalem when he spoke

Greek (Ac. 22:2). Jesus Himself laboured chiefly in Galilee

where were many gentiles and much commerce and travel. He

taught in Decapolis, a Greek region. He preached also in the

regions of Tyre and Sidon (Phoenicia), where Greek was neces-

sary, and he held converse with a Greek (Syro-Phcenician)

woman. Near Caesarea-Philippi (a Greek region), after the

Transfiguration, Jesus spoke to the people at the foot of the

mountain. At the time of the Sermon on the Mount Jesus ad-

dressed people from Decapolis and Perea (largely Hellenized), be-

sides the mixed multitudes from Galilee, Jerusalem and Judea

(Mt. 4:25). Luke (6:17) adds that crowds came also from Tyre

and Sidon, and Mark (3:8) gives "from Iduma." It is hardly pos-

sible that these crowds understood Aramaic. The fact that Mark

                                    NEW MATERIAL                                29

 

twice (5:41; 7:34) uses Aramaic quotations from the words of

Jesus does not prove that He always spoke in that tongue nor

that He did so only on these occasions. In Mk. 14:36,  Ἀββά ὁ

πατήρ, it is possible that Jesus may have used both words as

Paul did (Ro. 8:15). In the quotation from Ps. 22:1, spoken

on the cross, Mt. 27:46 gives the Hebrew, while Mk. 15:34

has an Aramaic adaptation. There is no reason to doubt that

Jesus knew Hebrew also. But Thomson (Temple Bible, Lang. of

Palestine) proves that Matthew gives the quotations made by

Christ in the words of the LXX, while his own quotations are

usually from the Hebrew. It is clear, therefore, that Jesus spoke

both Aramaic and Greek according to the demands of the occa-

sion and read the Hebrew as well as the Septuagint, if we may

argue from the 0. T. quotations in the Gospels which are partly

like the Hebrew text and partly like the LXX.¹  In Lu. 4:17 it

is not clear whether it was the Hebrew text or the LXX that was

read in the synagogue at Nazareth.² One surely needs no argu-

ment to see the possibility that a people may be bilingual when

he remembers the Welsh, Scotch, Irish, Bretons of the present

day.³ The people in Jerusalem understood either Greek or Ara-

maic (Ac. 22:2).

          (j) GRAMMATICAL COMMENTARIES. A word must be said Con-

cerning the new type of commentaries which accent the gram-

matical side of exegesis. This is, to be sure, the result of the

emphasis upon scientific grammar. The commentary must have

other elements besides the grammatical. Even the historical

element when added does not exhaust what is required. There

still remains the apprehension of the soul of the author to which

historical grammar is only an introduction. But distinct credit

is to be given to those commentators who have lifted this kind

of exegesis out of the merely homiletic vein. Among the older

writers are to be mentioned Meyer, Ellicott, Godet, Broadus,

Hackett, Lightfoot and Westcott, while among the more recent

commentators stand out most of the writers in the International

 

            ¹ See C. Taylor, The Gospel in the Law, 1869; Boehl, Alttestamentl. Cit.

im N. T., 1878; Toy, Quota. in the N. T., 1884; Huhn, Die alttestamentl.

Cit. etc., 1900; Gregory, Canon and Text of the N. T., 1907, p. 394.

            ² On the Gk. in the Tal. see art. Greek in Jew. Encyc.; Krauss, Griech.

and lat. Lehnw. im Tal.; Schurler, Jew. Hist., div. II, vol. I, p. 29 f.

            ³ See Zahn, Einl. in das N. T., ch. 11. On the bilingual character of many

of the Palestinian Jews see Schurer, Jew. Peo. in the Time of Ch., div. II,

vol. I, p. 48 f.; Moulton, Prol., p. 7 f.

30       A GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

 

Critical Commentary, Holtzmann's Hand Comm., The Expositor's

Greek Test., Swete, Mayor, G. Milligan, Lietzmann's Handbuch,

Zahn's Kommentar, The Camb. Gk. Test., etc. In works like these,

grammatical remarks of great value are found. There has been

great advance in the N. T. commentaries since Winer's day, when

these comments "were rendered useless by that uncritical empi-

ricism which controlled Greek philology."¹

          V. The New Point of View. It will hardly be denied, in view

of the preceding necessarily condensed presentation of the new

material now at hand that new light has been turned upon the

problems of the N. T. Greek. The first effect upon many minds

is to dazzle and to cause confusion. Some will not know how to

assimilate the new facts and to co-ordinate them with old theories

nor be willing to form or adopt new theories as a result of the

fresh phenomena. But it is the inevitable duty of the student in

this department to welcome the new discoveries and to attack

the problems arising therefrom. The new horizon and wider out-

look make possible real progress. It will not be possible to avoid

some mistakes at first. A truer conception of the language is

now offered to us and one that will be found to be richer and more

inspiring.² Every line of biblical study must respond to the new

discovery in language. "A new Cremer, a new Thayer-Grimm,

a new Winer will give the twentieth century plenty of editing to

keep its scholars busy. New Meyers and Alfords will have fresh

matter from which to interpret the text, and new Spurgeons and

Moodys will, we may hope, be ready to pass the new teaching

on to the people."³ The N. T. Greek is now seen to be not an

abnormal excrescence, but a natural development in the Greek

language; to be, in fact, a not unworthy part of the great stream

of the mighty tongue. It was not outside of the world-language,

but in the very heart of it and influenced considerably the future

of the Greek tongue.

 

            ¹ Winer, Gr. of the N. T. Idiom, Thayer's transl., p. 7.

            ² "Nun hat man aber die Sprache der heiligen Bucher mit den Papyrus-

denkmalern und den Inschriften der alexandrinischen und romischen Zeit

genau verglichen, und da hat sich die gar manchen Anhanger der alten Dok-

trin verbluffende, in Wahrheit ganz naturliche Tatsache ergeben, dass die

Sprache des N. T. nichts anderes ist als eine fur den literarischen Zweck

leicht temperierte Form des volkstumlich Griechisch." Krumbacher, Das

Prob. der neugr. Schriftspr., 1903, p. 27.

            ³ J. H. Moulton, New Lights on Bibl. Gk., Bibl. World, March, 1902.